Ed Webb's List: empire and race

• One of the new concepts that was introduced during the time of the Enlightenment was that of the Great Chain of Being. This was a hierarchy that linked all living organisms of the world, God being first, then the angels, then man; it went all the way down to the smallest insect. The purpose of the existence of the lower beings of the chain was to serve the higher beings: therefore, plants were used by animals, higher animals ate lower animals, men ate animals and had power over them, and a god had power over men

• Though he did not believe all the concepts concerning the Great Chain of Being, Charles Linnaeus still did believe in a set hierarchy of organisms. In General System of Nature, published in 1735, he placed man in the order of primates along with the other mammals. However, he did believe that the one characteristic that distinguished men from the apes was the former being's ability to use the facility of reason. But distinctions in that order did not cease to be merely with that classification. He stated that variations within the Genus Homo sapiens existed as a result of varying cultures and climates (2). The four main categories of the Genus that he proposed were the following: 

   

   1. Americanus. Native American males were supposedly red; had  black hair and sparse beards; were stubborn; prone to anger; "free"; and  governed by traditions (3). Thus, this form of Homo  sapiens was definitely inferior and uncivilized. 

   

   2. Asiaticus. The male Asian was said to be "yellowish, melancholy,  endowed with black hair and brown eyes...severe, conceited, and stingy.  He puts on loose clothing. He is governed by opinion." Thus, like the  aforementioned type of Homo sapiens, the Asiaticus could  only be a mediocre prototype (2). 

   

   3. Africanus. The male of this subset, according to Linnaeus, could be  recognized by his skin tone, face structure, and curly hair (2). This kind was apparently cunning, passive, and  inattentive, and ruled by impulse. The female of this kind was also  apparently shameless, because "they lactate profusely." (3) 

   

   4. Europeaus. The males of this subset were supposedly "changeable,  clever, and inventive. He puts on tight clothing. He is governed by laws."  (2)
• 'lazy Patagonians' [South American hunter-gatherers]
• Before Linnaeus proposed the ideas mentioned above, "race" had been used to distinguish between different nationalities. But after he proposed the system above, Europeans began to identify themselves with a larger group: "white" people. Now the ideal physical standards were those of classical Greece. The further one's physical traits were from that notion of perfection, the less Caucasian one was. Numerous authors began to publish books to prove that Europeans were at the top of the racial hierarchy they believed in
• Although the publication of his ideas in Origin of Species in 1859 caused quite an uproar within religious circles, it revolutionized natural science and - although it was not his intent - vindicated imperialist practices. Since Europeans believed themselves to be more technologically advanced than other peoples, Darwin's theory suggested that they were indeed the most superior race of all. It also suggested that the different human races were engaged in a competitive struggle to survive. Thus, it justified such ignorant acts as the conquest, colonization, and extermination of entire peoples. Conquest and colonization were necessary to educate and enlighten non-Christians, or "heathens". And if the heathens protested in any form, or if their land or goods were more desirable than their survival, they would simply be killed off. These acts did have a credible, scientific basis, after all. Because of this, England's conscience was at rest when it took over India, forced China to open trading ports, and when it took over various other Asian and African nations - France, Italy, and other European countries engaged in the latter activity also.

• In the chapter of his book Hereditary Genius - published in 1869 - entitled "The Comparative Worth of Different Races," Galton uses a sort of grading scale to point out where each race in the classification system he used lay according to its range of intelligence. On this scale, he stated that half of the men of each race would lie on the higher side of its ability, and the other half would lie in the lower side of its ability. In another division of this system, Athenians had the highest intelligence; British citizens and descendants were two "grades" below the Athenians; Lowland Scotsmen and Northern Englishmen were a fraction below the average English; Africans were two "grades" below the average English; and Australian Aborigines were last - one "grade" below Africans (5). 

   

   Galton's concepts of racial superiority became very popular in Europe as well as the United States - the latter even went so far as to pass laws passed to restrict immigrant flow to solely those peoples of North-European descent. As far back as 1691, Virginia had already banned all forms of inter-racial marriage. But now, in addition to the races previously mentioned as being so, even those people that belonged to the impoverished "white" were deemed genetically inferior (1).

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