rhyl macfarlane's List: Provide Ad Facilitation to Support Learning

Principles:

1. Dissonance results when an individual must choose between attitudes and
behaviors that are contradictory.

2. Dissonance can be eliminated by reducing the importance of the
conflicting beliefs, acquiring new beliefs that change the balance, or removing
the conflicting attitude or behavior

Example:

Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy
principles to the design of personal computer training:

1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g.,
certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)

2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning
activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.

3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different
backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for
different levels/types of previous experience with computers.

4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to
discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are
made.

Principles:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their
instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning
activities.

3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate
relevance to their job or personal life.

4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.

Curriculum should be organized
in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have
already learned.

Principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make
the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps (going beyond the information given).

• Verbal-Linguistic–The ability to use words and language
• Logical-Mathematical–The capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the recognition of abstract patterns
• Visual-Spatial–The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create internal images and pictures
• Body-Kinesthetic–The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion
• Musical-Rhythmic–The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats
• Interpersonal–The capacity for person-to-person communications and relationships
• Intrapersonal–The spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and awareness

Assessment–This theory calls for assessment methods that take into account the diversity of intelligences, as well as self-assessment tools that help students understand their intelligences.

Kolb's model therefore works on two levels - a four-stage
cycle:





1. Concrete Experience - (CE)
2. Reflective Observation - (RO)
3. Abstract Conceptualization - (AC)
4. Active Experimentation - (AE)

• Acquisition - birth to adolescence - development of basic abilities
  and 'cognitive structures'
• Specialization - schooling, early work and personal experiences of
  adulthood - the development of a particular 'specialized learning style' shaped
  by 'social, educational, and organizational socialization'
• Integration - mid-career through to later life - expression of
  non-dominant learning style in work and personal life.

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed their learning styles system as a
variation on the Kolb model while working on a project for the Chloride
corporation in the 1970's. Honey and Mumford say of their system:

"Our description of the stages in the learning cycle originated from the
work of David Kolb. Kolb uses different words to describe the stages of the
learning cycle and four learning styles..."

• 'Having an Experience' (stage 1), and Activists (style
  1): 'here and now', gregarious, seek challenge and immediate experience,
  open-minded, bored with implementation.
• 'Reviewing the Experience' (stage 2) and Reflectors
  (style 2): 'stand back', gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching
  conclusions, listen before speaking, thoughtful.
• 'Concluding from the Experience' (stage 3) and
  Theorists (style 3): think things through in logical steps, assimilate
  disparate facts into coherent theories, rationally objective, reject
  subjectivity and flippancy.
• 'Planning the next steps' (stage 4) and Pragmatists
  (style 4): seek and try out new ideas, practical, down-to-earth, enjoy problem
  solving and decision-making quickly, bored with long discussions.

• Activist = Accommodating
• Reflector = Diverging
• Theorist = Assimilating
• Pragmatist = Converging

Principles:

1. Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content.

2. Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content domain
and support context-dependent knowledge.

3. Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledge construction,
not transmission of information.

4. Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than
compartmentalized.

Principles:

Specific recommendations relative to the
design of instructional material include:

1.
Change problem solving methods to avoid means-ends approaches that impose
a heavy working memory load, by using goal-free problems or worked examples.

2.
Eliminate the working memory load associated with having to mentally integrate
several sources of information by physically integrating those sources of
information.

3.
Eliminate the working memory load associated with unnecessarily processing
repetitive information by reducing redundancy.

4.
Increase working memory capacity by using auditory as well as visual information
under conditions where both sources of information are essential (i.e. non-redundant)
to understanding.

Demonstrations

A practical presentation of a process or procedure or
skills which is designed to illustrate theoretical principles. Demonstrations
require
careful sequencing, oral and visual explanations, appropriate illustrations
and opportunities for students to pose questions and clarify problems.
The demonstration may take place within a lecture or as a supplementary
class activity after a lecture.

Experiential learning/experience-based learning

(see also: Adventure-based
learning; Problem-based learning; Project-based
learning)

An approach to teaching and learning that is based on the presumption
that every experience has the potential to be an opportunity for learning.
Students are placed in contexts or environments where they can assimilate
information and develop skills from being personally involved. Experiential
learning strategies include role plays, games and simulations, case studies,
problem-based learning, fieldwork and work-based education.

Jigsaw method

A teaching strategy where each student works on one part
of a learning task and then works collaboratively with a group of other
students to
combine the various parts and complete the activity. The learning task/problem
is broken into parts and students are asked to work on a response to
that part-task individually. Then students working on the same part work
in a group together to come up with a response and check their understandings
against those of other students. Students then form into different groups
in which each of the different parts of the task is represented, and
each student explains to the others their response to their part of the
problem.

Lectures

The term 'lecture' is derived from the medieval Latin lectare,
meaning to read aloud. In a tertiary context, a lecture has come to be
understood
as a public presentation by a teacher to a large group of students. In
its most common form, where a teacher speaks without any changes of activity
for the whole allotted time, the lecture offers limited opportunities
for active learning. A lecture can, however, be a very effective way
of teaching and learning if a lecturer includes strategies that facilitate
active rather than passive learning. See Ramsden (1992, p. 152) for a
discussion of the 'problems with lectures'.

Micro-teaching

A method that has been used primarily in teacher training
but can be adapted to a range of teaching contexts, in which students
give a lesson,
speech, presentation, or interview and it is videotaped for later review
and discussion by a group of students and the teacher. The micro-presentation
usually focuses on one skill, for example, asking questions, vocal
production, use of body language. Micro-teaching is a form of role playing.

Problem-based learning

(see also Project-based learning)

Boud (1985) describes PBL as "the idea that a problem should be
presented before learning begins, or, on a large scale, that learning
should be organised around problems which are related to the profession
rather than around the academic subjects that underpin the field".

Project-based learning

(see also Problem-based learning)

This approach's major characteristic is that by the end of a course students
produce a thesis, computer program, design plans, model, portfolio, written
and/or oral report, posters or some other piece of work, either individually
or in small teams. They have been able to explore a topic in depth and
develop skills and processes of an applied nature. The teacher or supervisor
assists in the formulation of the problem or task, the design and conduct
of the project, the ensuing investigations or development and the ultimate
product. This approach is often adopted as a final year culminating course
activity.

Tutorials

(see also Seminars)

A meeting of a small group of students (ideally 12-15) with a tutor,
which has traditionally been a supplementary discussion of the topic
or focus covered in a formal large group lecture. Effective tutorials
will give students opportunities to engage with lecture material in
a more direct and personal way, practise oral and critical thinking
skills,
and clarify content or solve problems.

Workbooks/learning guides

Written materials for students that are designed
to aid the organisation and learning of materials and promote the application
of knowledge. They
may include diagrammatic representations of information and approach
to content, course structure, learning objectives, assessment outlines,
readings, additional reading lists, outline of expectations of students.