<span> Part of Science for All Americans<br /></span>
This link has been bookmarked by 57 people . It was first bookmarked on 09 May 2008, by Chris Heumann.
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20 Oct 20
MsPrinceI can't believe I heard Trump say if Biden were elected- beware,he would listen to scientists. To all teachers- now is more important than ever to teach the nature of science. Time for every American to read Ch 1 of "Science for All Americans"! https://t.
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22 Mar 15
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01 May 14
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13 Mar 14
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Scientists assume that even if there is no way to secure complete and absolute truth, increasingly accurate approximations can be made to account for the world and how it works.
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Sooner or later, the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data
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Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone. Inventing hypotheses or theories to imagine how the world works and then figuring out how they can be put to the test of reality is as creative as writing poetry, composing music, or designing skyscrapers
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14 Jan 14
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These ways represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ from other modes of knowing.
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science, mathematics, and technology
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Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others.
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Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect, and with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature.
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Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same.
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Scientists assume that even if there is no way to secure complete and absolute truth, increasingly accurate approximations can be made to account for the world and how it works.
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There are, for instance, beliefs that—by their very nature—cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life).
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There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, no one path that leads them unerringly to scientific knowledge.
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Scientists observe passively
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and actively probe the world
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make collections
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observations have to be made over a sufficiently wide range of naturally occurring conditions to infer what the influence of various factors might be.
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logical reasoning—that is, to testing the validity of arguments by applying certain criteria of inference, demonstration, and common sense.
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Sometimes discoveries in science are made unexpectedly, even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpected.
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or example, for many years the study of primates—by male scientists—focused on the competitive social behavior of males. Not until female scientists entered the field was the importance of female primates' community-building behavior recognized.
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There are no preestablished conclusions that scientists must reach on the basis of their investigations.
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The advancement of information science (knowledge of the nature of information and its manipulation) and the development of information technologies (especially computer systems) affect all sciences. Those technologies speed up data collection, compilation, and analysis; make new kinds of analysis practical; and shorten the time between discovery and application.
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They differ from one another in many ways, including history, phenomena studied, techniques and language used, and kinds of outcomes desired.
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scientific disciplines do not have fixed borders.
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The strongly held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, buttressed by the critical review of one's work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority of scientists well within the bounds of ethical professional behavior.
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Another domain of scientific ethics relates to possible harm that could result from scientific experiments.
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The ethics of science also relates to the possible harmful effects of applying the results of research. The long-term effects of science may be unpredictable, but some idea of what applications are expected from scientific work can be ascertained by knowing who is interested in funding it.
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02 Jan 14
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21 Nov 13
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Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and validated ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. T
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hose ideas have enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable understanding of the human species and its environment.
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Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study.
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Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same.
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Science is a process for producing knowledge. The process depends both on making careful observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for making sense out of those observations. Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
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he modification of ideas, rather than their outright rejection, is the norm in science, as powerful constructs tend to survive and grow more precise and to become widely accepted.
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most scientific knowledge is durable. T
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18 Sep 13
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31 Aug 13
Sara Wilkie"Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and validated ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. Those ideas have enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable understanding of the human species and its environment. The means used to develop these ideas are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating. These ways represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ from other modes of knowing.
It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific endeavor and that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others. Accordingly, the first three chapters of recommendations draw portraits of science, mathematics, and technology that emphasize their roles in the scientific endeavor and reveal some of the similarities and connections among them.
This chapter lays out recommendations for what knowledge of the way science works is requisite for scientific literacy. The chapter focuses on three principal subjects: the scientific world view, scientific methods of inquiry, and the nature of the scientific enterprise. Chapters 2 and 3 consider ways in which mathematics and technology differ from science in general. Chapters 4 through 9 present views of the world as depicted by current science; Chapter 10, Historical Perspectives, covers key episodes in the development of science; and Chapter 11, Common Themes, pulls together ideas that cut across all these views of the world." -
30 Jul 13
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Scientists share certain basic beliefs and attitudes about what they do and how they view their work. These have to do with the nature of the world and what can be learned about it.
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Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study.
-
Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same.
-
Science is a process for producing knowledge.
-
Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
-
Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable.
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modification of ideas
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Continuity and stability are as characteristic of science as change is, and confidence is as prevalent as tentativeness.
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There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way.
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the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena.
-
scientists concentrate on getting accurate data.
-
make collections
-
Scientists observe passively
-
actively probe
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scientists can control conditions deliberately and precisely to obtain their evidence.
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control of conditions may be impractical
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scientific arguments must conform to the principles of logical reasoning
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To be useful, a hypothesis should suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it.
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Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone.
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Scientists strive to make sense of observations of phenomena by constructing explanations for them that use, or are consistent with, currently accepted scientific principles.
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The essence of science is validation by observation.
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theories should have predictive power.
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When faced with a claim that something is true, scientists respond by asking what evidence supports it.
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One safeguard against undetected bias in an area of study is to have many different investigators or groups of investigators working in it.
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It is appropriate in science, as elsewhere, to turn to knowledgeable sources of information and opinion, usually people who specialize in relevant disciplines.
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challenges to new ideas are the legitimate business of science in building valid knowledge.
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As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints.
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Because of the social nature of science, the dissemination of scientific information is crucial to its progress.
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Organizationally, science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different scientific fields, or content disciplines.
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all are equally scientific and together make up the same scientific endeavor.
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01 Jun 13
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03 Jul 12
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04 Mar 12
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27 Jan 12
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21 Jan 12
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These ways represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ from other modes of knowing.
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the scientific world view, scientific methods of inquiry, and the nature of the scientific enterprise.
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Chapters 2 and 3 consider ways in which mathematics and technology differ from science in general.
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The World Is Understandable
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a vast single system
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Subject To Change
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Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
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In science, the testing and improving and occasional discarding of theories, whether new or old, go on all the time
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Durable
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Continuity and stability are as characteristic of science as change is, and confidence is as prevalent as tentativeness.
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Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions
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beliefs that—by their very nature—cannot be proved or disproved
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There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, no one path that leads them unerringly to scientific knowledge. There are, however, certain features of science that give it a distinctive character as a mode of inquiry
-
everyone can exercise them in thinking scientifically about many matters of interest in everyday life
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getting accurate data
-
Because of this reliance on evidence, great value is placed on the development of better instruments and techniques of observation, and the findings of any one investigator or group are usually checked by others.
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Blend of Logic and Imagination
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But they tend to agree about the principles of logical reasoning that connect evidence and assumptions with conclusions.
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In fact, the process of formulating and testing hypotheses is one of the core activities of scientists. To be useful, a hypothesis should suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it.
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Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone
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s creative as writing poetry, composing music, or designing skyscrapers.
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even by accident
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But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpected. Aspects of data that have been ignored by one scientist may lead to new discoveries by another.
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Explains and Predicts
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theories—may be either sweeping or restricted, but they must be logically sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically valid observations
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Theories should also fit additional observations that were not used in formulating the theories in the first place; that is, theories should have predictive power
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Identify and Avoid Bias
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evidence can be biased in how the data are interpreted
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may not be completely avoidable in every instance
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to be as alert to possible bias in their own work as in that of other scientists, although such objectivity is not always achieved.
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Is Not Authoritarian
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new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas may encounter vigorous criticism, and scientists investigating such ideas may have difficulty obtaining support for their research
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In the long run, however, theories are judged by their results
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THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE
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individual, social, and institutional dimensions
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Complex Social Activity
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As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints.
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The direction of scientific research is affected by informal influences within the culture of science itself, such as prevailing opinion on what questions are most interesting or what methods of investigation are most likely to be fruitful
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many different settings
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Because of the social nature of science, the dissemination of scientific information is crucial to its progress. Some scientists present their findings and theories in papers that are delivered at meetings or published in scientific journals
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Those papers enable scientists to inform others about their work, to expose their ideas to criticism by other scientists, and, of course, to stay abreast of scientific developments around the world
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Organized Into Content Disciplines and Is Conducted in Various Institutions
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all are equally scientific and together make up the same scientific endeavor
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do not have fixed border
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Funding agencies influence the direction of science by virtue of the decisions they make on which research to support.
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Generally Accepted Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Science
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accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, buttressed by the critical review of one's work by peers
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possible harm that could result from scientific experiments.
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possible harmful effects of applying the results of research.
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a matter of personal ethics, not one of professional ethics.
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Scientists Participate in Public Affairs Both as Specialists and as Citizens
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advisory role,
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distinguish fact from interpretation, and research findings from speculation and opinion; that is, they are expected to make full use of the principles of scientific inquiry.
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17 Jan 12
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THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD VIEW
Scientists share certain basic beliefs and attitudes about what they do and how they view their work. These have to do with the nature of the world and what can be learned about it.
-
The World Is Understandable
-
universe is,
-
a vast single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same.
-
the universe is
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Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change
-
Science is a process for producing knowledge
-
depends both on making careful observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for making sense out of those observations.
-
Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
-
Scientific Knowledge Is Durable
-
Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable.
-
modification of ideas, rather than their outright rejection, is the norm
-
Continuity and stability are as characteristic of science as change is, and confidence is as prevalent as tentativeness.
-
Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions
-
many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way.
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sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely consequences of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing alternatives.
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SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
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Science Demands Evidence
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observations have to be made over a sufficiently wide range of naturally occurring conditions to infer what the influence of various factors might be. Because of this reliance on evidence, great value is placed on the development of better instruments and techniques of observation, and the findings of any one investigator or group are usually checked by others.
-
Science Is a Blend of Logic and Imagination
-
Although all sorts of imagination and thought may be used in coming up with hypotheses and theories, sooner or later scientific arguments must conform to the principles of logical reasoning—that is, to testing the validity of arguments by applying certain criteria of inference, demonstration, and common sense.
-
process of formulating and testing hypotheses is one of the core activities of scientists.
-
Sometimes discoveries in science are made unexpectedly, even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpect
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Science Explains and Predicts
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The credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability to show relationships among phenomena that previously seemed unrelated.
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The essence of science is validation by observation.
-
theories should have predictive power.
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Scientists Try to Identify and Avoid Bias
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When faced with a claim that something is true, scientists respond by asking what evidence supports it. But scientific evidence can be biased in how the data are interpreted, in the recording or reporting of the data, or even in the choice of what data to consider in the first place.
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Bias attributable to the investigator, the sample, the method, or the instrument may not be completely avoidable in every instance, but scientists want to know the possible sources of bias and how bias is likely to influence evidence.
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Science Is Not Authoritarian
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no scientist, however famous or highly placed, is empowered to decide for other scientists what is true, for none are believed by other scientists to have special access to the truth.
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short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas may encounter vigorous criticism, and scientists investigating such ideas may have difficulty obtaining support for their research.
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THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE
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Science Is a Complex Social Activity
-
As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints
-
The direction of scientific research is affected by informal influences within the culture of science
-
Science goes on in many different settings.
-
Because of the social nature of science, the dissemination of scientific information is crucial to its progress.
-
Science Is Organized Into Content Disciplines and Is Conducted in Various Institutions
-
Organizationally, science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different scientific fields, or content disciplines. From anthropology through zoology, there are dozens of such disciplines. They differ from one another in many ways, including history, phenomena studied, techniques and language used, and kinds of outcomes desired. With respect to purpose and philosophy, however, all are equally scientific
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There Are Generally Accepted Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Science
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Most scientists conduct themselves according to the ethical norms of science
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Another domain of scientific ethics relates to possible harm that could result from scientific experiments
-
The ethics of science also relates to the possible harmful effects of applying the results of research. The long-term effects of science may be unpredictable, but some idea of what applications are expected from scientific work can be ascertained by knowing who is interested in funding it
-
Scientists Participate in Public Affairs Both as Specialists and as Citizens
-
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08 Dec 11
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19 Sep 11
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Scientific inquiry is not easily described apart from the context of particular investigations. There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, no one path that leads the
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m unerringly to
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scientific knowledge.
-
But they tend to agree about the principles of logical reasoning that connect evidence and assumptions with conclusions.
-
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28 Jun 11
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Sooner or later, the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such as the laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as microscopes) that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust or administering experimental medicines).
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21 Jun 11
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02 Jan 11
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08 Nov 10
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29 Oct 10
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17 Sep 10
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Scientific inquiry is not easily described apart from the context of particular investigations. There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, no one path that leads them unerringly to scientific knowledge. There are, however, certain features of science that give it a distinctive character as a mode of inquiry. Although those features are especially characteristic of the work of professional scientists, everyone can exercise them in thinking scientifically about many matters of interest in everyday life.
-
the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that range from natural settings
-
In fact, the process of formulating and testing hypotheses is one of the core activities of scientists.
-
To be useful, a hypothesis should suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it.
-
-
15 Sep 10
Cheska Lorena"This chapter lays out recommendations for what knowledge of the way science works is requisite for scientific literacy. The chapter focuses on three principal subjects: the scientific world view, scientific methods of inquiry, and the nature of the scientific enterprise. "
science nature-of-science scientific-method teaching-resources
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It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific endeavor and that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others.
-
The World Is Understandable
-
Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study.
-
Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same. Knowledge gained from studying one part of the universe is applicable to other parts.
-
Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change
-
Science is a process for producing knowledge. The process depends both on making careful observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for making sense out of those observations. Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
-
Scientific Knowledge Is Durable
-
most scientific knowledge is durable. The modification of ideas, rather than their outright rejection, is the norm in science, as powerful constructs tend to survive and grow more precise and to become widely accepted.
-
Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions
-
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
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scientists differ greatly from one another in what phenomena they investigate and in how they go about their work;
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till, the exchange of techniques, information, and concepts goes on all the time among scientists, and there are common understandings among them about what constitutes an investigation that is scientifically valid.
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Science Demands Evidence
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Science Is a Blend of Logic and Imagination
-
Although all sorts of imagination and thought may be used in coming up with hypotheses and theories, sooner or later scientific arguments must conform to the principles of logical reasoning—that is, to testing the validity of arguments by applying certain criteria of inference, demonstration, and common sense.
-
To be useful, a hypothesis should suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it.
-
Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone.
-
Science Explains and Predicts
-
The essence of science is validation by observation.
-
Scientists Try to Identify and Avoid Bias
-
Science Is Not Authoritarian
-
THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE
-
Science Is a Complex Social Activity
-
Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and goes on to some degree in all nations of the world.
-
The direction of scientific research is affected by informal influences within the culture of science itself, such as prevailing opinion on what questions are most interesting or what methods of investigation are most likely to be fruitful.
-
Science goes on in many different settings. Scientists are employed by universities, hospitals, business and industry, government, independent research organizations, and scientific associations. They may work alone, in small groups, or as members of large research teams. Their places of work include classrooms, offices, laboratories, and natural field settings from space to the bottom of the sea.
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Science Is Organized Into Content Disciplines and Is Conducted in Various Institutions
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science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different scientific fields, or content disciplines.
-
There Are Generally Accepted Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Science
-
ethical norms of science
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Scientists Participate in Public Affairs Both as Specialists and as Citizens
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Scientists can bring information, insights, and analytical skills to bear on matters of public concern.
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06 Aug 10
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19 Jul 10
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24 May 10
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22 Apr 10
Alan TangProject 2061 Science for All Americans Online recommendations for what knowledge of Science is necessary for scientific literacy.
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22 Sep 09
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The means used to develop these ideas are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating
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18 Jun 09
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08 Feb 09
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Add Sticky Note
Science Is a Complex SocialActivity
"Scientific work involves many individuals doing many differentkinds of work and goes on to some degree in all nations of theworld. Men and women of all ethnic and national backgroundsparticipate in science and its applications. Thesepeople—scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians,technicians, computer programmers, librarians, andothers—may focus on scientific knowledge either for its ownsake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may beconcerned with data gathering, theory building, instrumentbuilding, or communicating."
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02 Feb 09
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11 Aug 08
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09 May 08
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30 Jul 06
Public Stiky Notes
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