Sproutedink's List: Sexism, Objectification and Sexual Violence

Sexist comments are not perceived equally in the eyes of women. We extend previous research by examining the degree to which multiple types of potentially sexist comments made by multiple types of men are perceived as sexist. Further, we examine the degree to which three possible mediators—prototypicality, perceived intent, and interdependence—explained these effects. Female undergraduate students (N= 248) were randomly assigned to read a scenario in which a hostile sexist, benevolent sexist, or objectifying comment was made by one of three types of men: a stranger, their boss, or their boyfriend. Results demonstrate that hostile sexism was perceived as more sexist than benevolent sexism or objectification. Comments made by boyfriends were also rated as less sexist than those made by bosses or strangers. Furthermore, perceptions of prototypicality of the comment or perpetrator and perceived intent to harm mediated the effect of study manipulations on perceptions of sexism

(Why are we more comfortable with our boyfriends using sexist language? )

"Entitled attitudes appear to be linked to sexism -- even among women, according to a personality study by psychologists. In general, entitled men are more likely to endorse hostile views of women and entitled women are more likely to endorse views of women as frail and needing extra care. The attitudes observed by men have been linked by past research as predictors of violence toward women. Conversely, the attitudes observed by women have been linked to reduction of advancement in education and jobs."

"Heflick, Nathan A., and Jamie L. Goldenberg. "Seeing Eye To Body: The Literal Objectification Of Women." Current Directions In Psychological Science (Sage Publications Inc.) 23.3 (2014): 225-229. Academic Search Premier. Web. 26 June 2014."

Scholars have long argued that women are denied a basic sense of humanness—are objectified—when focus is directed toward their physical rather than mental qualities. Early research on objectification focused on women’s self-objectification and measured objectification indirectly (as an emphasis on physical appearance). Recent research, however, has provided direct evidence that a focus on the physical aspects of women by others causes women to be perceived like, and act like, objects lacking mind. Manifestations of this literal objectification include attributing women less of the traits that distinguish people from objects and visual-recognition and neural responses consistent with nonhuman-object perception. Women themselves also behave more like objects (by, e.g., speaking less) when they are aware of this focus by others. Real-world implications and ways to defuse literal objectification are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Krawczyk, Ross. "Media that objectify women: The influence on individuals' body image and perceptions of others." Dissertation Abstracts International 74. (2014). PsycINFO. Web. 26 June 2014.

"Past research has examined body image and eating-related outcomes of exposure to mass media. This research has generally found that such exposure is a significant risk factor for body image disturbance and disordered eating. However, a causal relationship has not yet been firmly established. Several theories, including objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), have attempted to explain this relationship with some success. The current study had two primary goals. First, it was designed to further explore the potential causal relationship between mass media exposure and body image and affect disturbance. Second, it attempted to go beyond individuals' body image and explore how exposure to objectifying media influences people's judgments of others. Briefly, the results revealed that exposure to media that objectify women was related to state body image disturbance, anger, and anxiety. Gender and internalization of cultural appearance ideals frequently played an important role in these relationships. Exposure to objectifying media did not predict participants' judgments of women's competence or attractiveness. However, interesting gender differences were observed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)"

Riva, Giuseppe, Santino Gaudio, and Antonios Dakanalis. "The Neuropsychology Of Self-Objectification." European Psychologist (2014): PsycINFO. Web. 26 June 2014.

"According to the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) girls and women are thought to adopt a self-objectified view of themselves as objects to be evaluated on the basis of their appearance. More, this experience is proposed to have a direct link with the health and well being of female subjects. The paper analyzes and discusses the objectification theory within the context of recent research on memory and spatial cognition. On one side, it describes self-objectification as a specific cognitive process: a woman internalizes an objectified self image, when she uses an allocentric frame of reference (observer mode) to remember events in which she evaluates herself based upon bodily appearance. On the other side it directly connects the objectification theory with the Allocentric Lock Hypothesis (Riva, 2012), suggesting that eating disorders have as antecedent an allocentric (objective, from outside) negative image schema of the body that is no more updated by egocentric sensory inputs from perception. Both the similarities between the allocentric lock and the out-of-body experience and a review of the recent studies supporting this claim are also presented and discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)"

http://rudolf.rockhurst.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2014-23165-001&site=ehost-live

Cornell, Drucilla, and Stephen D. Seely. "There's Nothing Revolutionary About A Blowjob." Social Text 32.2_119 (2014): 1-23. Academic Search Elite. Web. 26 June 2014.

"An essay is presented on queer theory. It focuses on the celebration of sexuality as a measure of liberation which identifies the U.S. Left in general and includes lot of feminists. It suggests that thinker Michel Foucault was not a postrevolutionary but was deeply concerned with how certain forms of sexual freedom were an integral part of capitalism."

Loughnan, Steve, et al. "Sexual Objectification Increases Rape Victim Blame And Decreases Perceived Suffering." Psychology Of Women Quarterly 37.4 (2013): 455-461. PsycINFO. Web. 26 June 2014.


"Sexual objectification changes the way people view women by reducing them to sexual objects-denied humanity and an internal mental life, as well as deemed unworthy of moral concern. However, the subsequent consequences of sexually objectifying others remain underresearched. In the current study, we examined the impact of objectification in the domain of sexual assault. Sixty British undergraduate students were recruited to complete an impression formation task. We manipulated objectification by presenting participants with either a sexualized or nonsexualized woman. Participants rated the woman's mind and the extent to which they felt moral concern for her. They then learned that she was the victim of an acquaintance rape and reported victim blame and both blatant and subtle perceptions of her suffering. Consistent with prior research, sexualized women were objectified through a denial of mental states and moral concern. Further, compared with nonobjectified women, the objectified were perceived to be more responsible for being raped. Interestingly, although no difference emerged for blatant measures of suffering, participants tacitly denied the victims' suffering by exhibiting changes in moral concern for the victim. We conclude that objectification has important consequences for how people view victims of sexual assault. Our findings reveal that sexual objectification can have serious consequences and we discuss how these might influence how victims cope and recover from sexual assault. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)"

Graff, Kaitlin A., Sarah K. Murnen, and Anna K. Krause. "Low-Cut Shirts And High-Heeled Shoes: Increased Sexualization Across Time In Magazine Depictions Of Girls." Sex Roles 69.11/12 (2013): 571-582. Academic Search Premier. Web. 3 July 2014.

"Theory and past research predict an increase in the sexualization of girls in United States culture. We used content analysis to examine change in the number of sexualizing characteristics (e.g., low cut shirts, high-heeled shoes) and childlike characteristics (e.g., polka-dot print, Mary-Jane style shoes) present in depictions of girls across time in the magazines Seventeen ( N = 1649 images from issues in selected issues from 1971 through 2011) and Girls' Life ( N = 763 images from selected issues from 1994 to 2011). One-way ANOVAS revealed increases in the total number of sexualizing characteristics across time in both magazines. In particular, depictions of low-cut tops and tight fitting clothing increased in both magazines. There was also a decrease in the number of childlike characteristics in Girls' Life across time. Possible reasons for increased sexualization as well as possible consequences are discussed. "

Meier, Evelyn P., and James Gray. "Facebook Photo Activity Associated With Body Image Disturbance In Adolescent Girls." Cyberpsychology, Behavior, And Social Networking 17.4 (2014): 199-206. PsycINFO. Web. 3 July 2014.

"The present study examined the relationship between body image and adolescent girls' activity on the social networking site (SNS) Facebook (FB). Research has shown that elevated Internet ''appearance exposure'' is positively correlated with increased body image disturbance among adolescent girls, and there is a particularly strong association with FB use. The present study sought to replicate and extend upon these findings by identifying the specific FB features that correlate with body image disturbance in adolescent girls. A total of 103 middle and high school females completed questionnaire measures of total FB use, specific FB feature use, weight dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, thin ideal internalization, appearance comparison, and self-objectification. An appearance exposure score was calculated based on subjects' use of FB photo applications relative to total FB use. Elevated appearance exposure, but not overall FB usage, was significantly correlated with weight dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, thin ideal internalization, and self-objectification. Implications for eating disorder prevention programs and best practices in researching SNSs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)"

"By taking advantage of the Italian protest in 2009 in reaction to the behaviour of then Prime Minister Berlusconi, in this research, we investigated the role of sexist beliefs (i.e., hostile sexism, complementary gender differentiation, protective paternalism, and heterosexual intimacy) and group‐based emotional reactions (i.e., anger, humiliation, and sadness) to women's and men's action mobilization against public forms of sexism. The findings of this study suggest that women and men engaged in this protest for different reasons. Women mobilized to express their anger at Berlusconi's sexist behaviour, an emotion related to the condemnation of hostile sexist views and benevolent sexist beliefs about heterosexual intimacy. In contrast, the strength of men's participation in the protest was affected by humiliation, an emotion related to the condemnation of hostile sexist beliefs and support for complementary gender differentiation. This emotional path suggests that men likely protested to restore their reputations. These findings underline the role of sexist beliefs and group‐based emotions in transforming the condemnation of a sexist event into action mobilization against sexism for both women and men."

Heflick, Nathan A., and Jamie L. Goldenberg. "Seeing Eye To Body: The Literal Objectification Of Women." Current Directions In Psychological Science 23.3 (2014): 225-229. PsycINFO. Web. 3 July 2014.

"Scholars have long argued that women are denied a basic sense of humanness-are objectified-when focus is directed toward their physical rather than mental qualities. Early research on objectification focused on women's self-objectification and measured objectification indirectly (as an emphasis on physical appearance). Recent research, however, has provided direct evidence that a focus on the physical aspects of women by others causes women to be perceived like, and act like, objects lacking mind. Manifestations of this literal objectification include attributing women less of the traits that distinguish people from objects and visual-recognition and neural responses consistent with nonhuman-object perception. Women themselves also behave more like objects (by, e.g., speaking less) when they are aware of this focus by others. Real-world implications and ways to defuse literal objectification are discussed. "

Swami, Viren, and Martin Tovée. "Men's Oppressive Beliefs Predict Their Breast Size Preferences In Women." Archives Of Sexual Behavior 42.7 (2013): 1199-1207. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 July 2014.

"Previous studies of men's breast size preferences have yielded equivocal findings, with studies variously indicating a preference for small, medium, or large breasts. Here, we examined the impact of men's oppressive beliefs in shaping their female breast size ideals. British White men from the community in London, England ( N = 361) viewed figures of women that rotated in 360° and varied in breast size along five levels. They then rated the figure that they found most physically attractive and also completed measures assessing their sexist attitudes and tendency to objectify women. Results showed that medium breasts were rated most frequent as attractive (32.7 %), followed by large (24.4 %) and very large (19.1 %) breasts. Further analyses showed that men's preferences for larger female breasts were significantly associated with a greater tendency to be benevolently sexist, to objectify women, and to be hostile towards women. These results were discussed in relation to feminist theories, which postulate that beauty ideals and practices in contemporary societies serve to maintain the domination of one sex over the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]"

Chen, Zhansheng, Fei Teng, and Hong Zhang. "Sinful Flesh: Sexual Objectification Threatens Women's Moral Self." Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology 49.6 (2013): 1042-1048. Academic Search Complete. Web. 8 July 2014.

"Abstract: The current investigation examined whether sexual objectification leads to perceived contamination in women victims, which, in turn, triggers sinful feelings. The results of three experiments provide converging support for these predictions. Female participants reported greater sinful feelings than their non-objectified counterparts, after receiving objectifying comments on their physical appearance from an alleged male partner (Experiment 1) or recalling a past experience of objectification (Experiments 2 and 3). Furthermore, perceived contamination mediated the effect of objectification on sinful feelings. We also found that perceived personal responsibility of being objectified moderated the above effects, such that the effects were only observed among participants who perceived themselves as highly responsible for objectification experience, but not among those who perceived low personal responsibility. These findings contribute to the literature by explaining why objectification elicits sinful feelings in female victims and who is more susceptible to this influence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]"

Chrisler, Joan C., et al. "Ambivalent Sexism And Attitudes Toward Women In Different Stages Of Reproductive Life: A Semantic, Cross-Cultural Approach." Health Care For Women International 35.6 (2014): 634-657. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 July 2014.

"College students in southeastern Mexico (n= 185) and the northeastern United States (n= 96) utilized a semantic differential scale to rate subtypes of women: a menstruating woman, a menopausal woman, a pregnant woman, a premenstrual woman, a woman with a hysterectomy, a teenage girl, a woman in love, and a woman with a young baby. Americans reported significantly more negative attitudes than Mexicans did toward a menstruating woman, a premenstrual woman, a teenage girl, and a pregnant woman. Participants chose more positive words to describe a teenage girl, a woman in love, a pregnant woman, and a woman with a young baby, which is suggestive of a pronatal bias. Participants also completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI). Men scored significantly higher than women on hostile sexism. Mexicans scored significantly higher than Americans on both hostile and benevolent sexism. Sexism scores are related to attitudes toward premenstrual, menstruating, and menopausal women; women with a hysterectomy; and women with a young baby. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]"

I wish this had a transcript so i could save the best parts here

From the time that I was young, I was taught in subtle and not-so-subtle ways that everything belongs to me, in large part because I’m a man (though there’s definitely some racial and class socialization thrown the mix).

Thus, I have learned that my gaze is more than a simple look and appreciation.

It’s more of an ogle, and it communicates a multitude of messages.

It communicates that all bodies are available to me, that as a man, I control all space, and thus, any body that enters that space is mine to leer at and comment upon (verbally and non-verbally).

My gaze also communicates that I have the weight of capitalist patriarchy behind me.

Behind my stare exists an advertising industry that objectifies women’s bodies for incredible profit.

Behind my stare is a political system that seeks to regulate women’s bodies outside of their control.

Behind my stare is a pornography and media machine that communicates in nearly every single message that women are endlessly inadequate, weak objects and that men are dominant, in control, and powerful.

And this has real-world effects!

At age thirteen, 53% of American girls are “unhappy with their bodies.” This grows to 78% by the time girls reach seventeen.

Five to ten million adolescent girls and women struggle with eating disorders and borderline eating conditions, and 90 percent of those who have eating disorders are women between the ages of 12 and 25. (Source)

Another great video about sexual objectification!

"Feminist Perspectives on Objectification
First published Wed Mar 10, 2010; substantive revision Fri Jun 6, 2014
Objectification is a notion central to feminist theory. It can be roughly defined as the seeing and/or treating a person, usually a woman, as an object. In this entry, the focus is primarily on sexual objectification, objectification occurring in the sexual realm. Martha Nussbaum (1995, 257) has identified seven features that are involved in the idea of treating a person as an object:

instrumentality: the treatment of a person as a tool for the objectifier's purposes;
denial of autonomy: the treatment of a person as lacking in autonomy and self-determination;
inertness: the treatment of a person as lacking in agency, and perhaps also in activity;
fungibility: the treatment of a person as interchangeable with other objects;
violability: the treatment of a person as lacking in boundary-integrity;
ownership: the treatment of a person as something that is owned by another (can be bought or sold);
denial of subjectivity: the treatment of a person as something whose experiences and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account.
Rae Langton (2009, 228–229) has added three more features to Nussbaum's list:

reduction to body: the treatment of a person as identified with their body, or body parts;
reduction to appearance: the treatment of a person primarily in terms of how they look, or how they appear to the senses;
silencing: the treatment of a person as if they are silent, lacking the capacity to speak.
The majority of the thinkers discussing objectification have taken it to be a morally problematic phenomenon. This is particularly the case in feminist discussions of pornography. Anti-pornography feminists Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, influenced by Immanuel Kant's conception of objectification, have famously argued that, due to men's consumption of pornography, women as a group are reduced to the status of mere tools for men's purposes. Moreover, feminists like Sandra Bartky and Susan Bordo have argued that women are objectified through being excessively preoccupied with their appearance. Important recent work by feminists has also been devoted to exploring the connection between objectivity and objectification. More recently, some thinkers, such as Martha Nussbaum, have challenged the idea that objectification is a necessarily negative phenomenon, arguing for the possibility of positive objectification. While treating a person as an object (in one or more of the ways mentioned above) is often problematic, Nussbaum argues that objectification can in some contexts take benign or even positive forms, and can constitute a valuable and enjoyable part of our lives. In her forthcoming work, Nancy Bauer questions the very idea that it makes sense to specify the marks and features of the term ‘objectification’. Such an attempt, she argues, will only distort the phenomenon in question (2015, forthcoming)."

A sex object is defined on the basis of its looks, in terms of its usability for sexual pleasure, such that both the looking—the quality of gaze, including its points of view—and the definition according to use become eroticised as part of the sex itself. This is what the feminist concept of ‘sex object’ means”

A person, in one Kantian view, is a free and rational agent whose existence is an end in itself, as opposed to instrumental. In pornography women exist to the end of male pleasure

"Daniels, Elizabeth A., and Eileen L. Zurbriggen. "The Price Of Sexy: Viewers' Perceptions Of A Sexualized Versus Nonsexualized Facebook Profile Photograph." Psychology Of Popular Media Culture (2014): PsycINFO. Web. 18 July 2014."

Using an experimental methodology, the present study assessed adolescent girls' and young adult women's perceptions of a peer who presented herself on Facebook in either a sexualized or nonsexualized manner. Fifty-eight adolescent girls and 60 young adult women viewed a Facebook profile with either a sexualized profile photo or a nonsexualized profile photo and then evaluated the profile owner. Results indicated that the sexualized profile owner was considered less physically attractive, less socially attractive, and less competent to complete tasks. There was a main effect of age in the judgment of social attractiveness, with young adult women giving higher ratings than adolescent girls. There were no other main effects of age or interactions between age and condition. Findings suggest that using a sexualized profile photo on Facebook comes with relational costs for girls and women. Strategies for educating young people about new media use and sexualization are discussed.

http://rudolf.rockhurst.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2014-28827-001&site=ehost-live

"The problem of sex trafficking can seem beyond our control, but there are some wonderful organizations out there fighting the good fight everyday that we can support in whatever ways we can to help end this evil. And, as citizens we can demand that our government do more domestically and internationally to further the cause of human freedom. As a nation, abolishment of slavery was and is an important milestone in our history. We now have to go the extra mile to end slavery in all of its illegal forms starting here at home.

I would like to argue that there is something else we can do too - something that requires moral courage, introspection, and ultimately a cultural shift. We can start a movement against the sexual objectification of women. If we are really honest, the shocking evil of sex trafficking is in, some ways, only an extension and the ugliest manifestation of treating women like commodities. From selling cars and clothes to beer and chips and everything in between, we have become quite comfortable with the sexual objectification of women in society. And, somehow as long as a woman consents and is over the random age of 18 or 21, it becomes completely legal to sexually and commercially exploit her.

Sadly, many women - young girls in particular - have internalized a lot of this objectification around them on highway billboards, television and movie screens, and Internet. For it nowadays to be common and culturally acceptable for a young girl to walk around in the mall, for example, with something like "juicy" written across her backside or across her chest is an indication of the serious problem that lies before us.

Needless to say, women are not objects - they are human beings who have souls and intellects and are endowed with God-given dignity that no man or corporation should ever be able to take away from them. Starting with the way we raise our boys and our girls, we are desperately in need of a cultural shift - locally and globally - on how we think of women.

A young man once came to the Prophet Muhammad asking permission to commit fornication with women. The Prophet drew the young man closer to himself, put his hand on his shoulders, and asked, "Would you like this for your sister or your mother or your daughter?" The man immediately replied that he would hate it. The Prophet said, "then, how can I permit you to do this with someone else's sister, mother, or daughter?"

Ramadan is the month in which we learn to discipline our sexual appetites through the spiritual discipline of fasting. The idea is not sacrifice our appetites completely at the altar of monasticism, but rather to bring our inclinations into conformity with a higher and more ethical way. If people were not slaves to their sexual appetites there would be no industry for sex slavery. And, if people learned to control their sexual glances, there would be far less objectification of women. As with everything else that is good, it all begins with the self."