mark passerini's List: Medevil engineering

• Medieval Pitched Battles
• Infantry, including missile troops, would typically be employed   at the outset of the battle to break open infantry formations. Cavalry   attempted to defeat the enemy cavalry.
• Medieval Fortifications
• Most notably the Vikings, Arabs, Mongols and Magyars raided significantly.   As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly,   building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection   for the people and the wealth in the region.
• fortifications evolved over the course of the Middle Ages,   the most important form being the castle, a structure which has   become synonymous with the Medieval era to many.
• Medieval Siege Warfare
• In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of   siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege   towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager,   ballista, and trebuchet. Siege techniques also included mining.
• Attackers therefore often had two sets of obstacles - first the   city walls, then the castle walls. This could lead to interesting   complications as at Beaucaire in 1216. For months Simon de Montfort   besieged Raymondet in the town, while Raymondet besieged a garrison   loyal to de Montfort in the castle within the town.
• breaching the walls or doorways. Attackers would use   weapons to get through walls. Examples are stone throwing machines   petriers such as trebuchets and mangonels); machines to knock   holes in walls such as battering rams; and engines to extract   individual dressed stones one by one (cats, weasels and simple   picks).
• • tunelling under the walls. Attackers would build mines,   either to gain access to the interior or to undermine and collapse   the defensive walls.
   
  • getting over the walls. Attackers would use scaling ladders   and siege engines such as large mobile wooden towers known as   belfries.
   
  • sitting and waiting. If communications between the besieged   and the outside world could be cut then the defenders could be   denied food supplies and sometimes water (as at Beaucaire, Carcassonne,   Minerve,   and Termes).   This was not always possible (as for Raymondet at Beaucaire and   at Montsegur). The word siege means "to sit", an indication   that this was a standard technique.
   
  • A Fifth Column. Inducing someone on the inside to assist   the attackers, either by bribery or exploiting divided loyalties.   They could for example open a postern gate at night. Occasionally   attackers could be smuggled in to the besieged fortification to   fulfil this role, as for example in ancient times in the famous   Trojan horse.
   
  • Diplomacy, threats, terror and psychological techniques.   To help weaken the will of the defenders, attackers could make   threats or promises, or terrorise the defenders - for example   by mutilating or executing hostages, or by using throwing machines   to lob fire, or human heads or other body parts, into the the   fortification.
   
  • Biological Warfare. Medieval besiegers were known to   project diseased animals into fortifications with the deliberate   intention of spreading disease and so weakening the garisson.   I some cases it was possible to poison water supplies, though   most fortifications had their own wells or water cisterns.
   
   

   
• Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting   higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics   definitely favoured the defender.
• traditional methods of defence became less and less effective   against a determined siege, giving rise to a new form of defensive   structure, the star-fort.
• Siege Towers (Belfries, Belfrois)
• A belfry was used for gaining access to a castle, generally   at the level of the battlements. It was typically constructed   in wood, on several stories - as many as necessary to reach   the battlements.

• One way to foil the approach of a belfry was to have sloping   castle walls. This forced the attackers to cover a greater   distance from the top of the belfry to the top of the castle   wall. This was one of the benefits of a talus.

   

  Another way to foil the approach was to build ditches and   moats to prevent the approach of belfries.

   

  As on the right, attackers often needed to fill up the ditch   or moat to provide a level surface that extended all the way   to the foot of the castle wall.

   

  In practice, all sorts of material was used for this: earth,   rocks, straw, dead bodies, wood, whatever came to hand. If   too much wood was used in the infill then the infill itself   became a target for fire setters.
• Battering Rams
• A battering ram is a siege engine originating in ancient times   to breach fortification walls or doors. In its simplest form, a   battering ram is just a large, heavy log carried by several people   and propelled with force against the target, the momentum of the   ram damaging the target.
• Some battering rams were supported by rollers.
• In a more sophisticated design, the ram was slung from a wheeled   support frame so that it could be much more massive and also more   easily swung against its target. Sometimes the ram's attacking point   would be reinforced with a metal head. A capped ram is a battering   ram that has an accessory at the head (usually made of iron or steel,   traditionally shaped into the head and horns of a ram to do more   damage to a building.
• Many battering rams had protective roofs and side-screens covered   in materials, often fresh wet hides to prevent the ram being set   on fire

• The Cat

   

  A Cat was a wooden structure built (or moved) up to a defensive   wall. From surviving documents it seems that an arm could manipulated   to claw away at the castle wall - hence the name.

• he Weasel

   

  A weasel was a similar sort of structure to a cat, but smaller   and lighter. It seems to have been more manoeuvrable and used a   spike rather than a paw to attack castle walls.
• Greek Fire
• ncendiary devices were standard weapons of war. Wooden defences   always needed protection from burning. Wet animal hides were highly   effective against burning arrows so military engineers dedicated   themselves to finding ways of ensuring that fires burned as long   and as strongly as necessary to catch. All sorts of chemicals could   be used for this purpose - petroleum, sulphur, quicklime and tar   barrels for example.
• Greek fire was a burning-liquid used as a weapon of war by the   Byzantines, and also by Arabs, Chinese, and Mongols. Incendiary   weapons had been in use for centuries: petroleum and sulphur had   both been in use since the early days of the Christianity. Greek   fire was vastly more potent.

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• The technology of the Ancients had been a variety of what later would be called the "bloomery" method of making iron. Chunks of iron ore, mixed with charcoal, were heated and hammered in the equivalent of blacksmiths' forges. Hand-operated leather bellows were used to intensify the heat. This method of producing iron was slow, yielding only about 50 pounds per batch and the iron "blooms," containing much carbon and bits of waste called slag, required additional refining.
• • precursur to blast forge 
• Advances in metallurgy during the Middle Ages began with efforts to increase the efficiency and the size of bloomeries. By the eighth Century the Catalan forge had been perfected in northern Spain. Catalonians explored the advantages of taller furnaces and introduced the nozzle or tuyere for a blast of air produced by leather bellows. A five-hour heat of a Catalan Forge produced a pasty batch of slag-free iron weighing about 350 pounds.
• n the eighth and ninth centuries in Austria, Saxony, and along the Rhine, the height of furnaces (stuckofen) was extended to as much as 16 feet. These furnaces produced malleable iron directly from the ore and turned out up to 700 pounds per heat. Eventually furnaces were so tall that leather bellows worked by men could not produce a strong enough blast so waterpower was used to compress air into a stronger blast. As more changes one by one were added, medieval blast furnace technology emerged. No single exact date or place is accepted for this-it is agreed, however, that true blast furnaces were developed at several places, including Lapphyttan, Sweden between 1150 and 1350, and at places in modern-day Belgium in 1340 and France in 1409.
• The medieval blast furnace technology died in the same manner as the classical bloomery and for the same reasons. It could not keep pace with the growing need for greater output and more diversity in iron. One reason was exhaustion of the "endless forests" for charcoal. A rule of thumb had it that all the charcoal that could be made from all of the wood cut from an acre of hardwood was required for each full day of operation of a blast furnace. After a few years of coaling at that rate, the growing distance of the charcoal mounds from the furnaces drove up hauling costs. Many enterprises failed from depletion of their hardwood forests. In England where the problem was particularly bad, coked bituminous coal began being substituted for charcoal as early as 1709.

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• he simple motte and bailey castles from the 11th century with their timber frames and palisades evolved into substantial concentric castles by the 14th century.
• fortifications were built around the pros and cons of the location
• The entrances to castles were, from a very early age, recognised as their weakest spot.
• the barbican which is a walled courtyard in front of the castle gateway.

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• Defending a Castle in the Middle Ages - Withstanding a Siege situation
  The site of a castle was chosen carefully. The following factors were considered:

  • Castles were always built on land containing a well or a spring - so lack of water was not usually a problem. It was essential for the inhabitants of a castle to have access to a well

  • Many castles were built with direct access to the sea, or a river, so that fresh supplies could be delivered to the castle and the defenders could not be starved into submission

  • Water was also required to douse any fires within the castle complex

  • The inhabitants of Castles which were built inland ran the risk of being starved into submission

  • The higher the land the castle was built upon the easier it was for defending a castl
• A Defence strategy
• Round - shaped Keeps or Towers were built eliminating the weak corners of the square keeps which were easy to undermine
• Some moats were up to 30 feet deep

• • Castle moats could be filled with wooden stakes or water

  • Water was preferable - filling a moat with water reduced the risk of tunnelling and potential fires
• Various other walls within the castle complex were built at different levels - the highest wall being the Inner wall - this allowed the defenders of the keep or tower to have a clear view of any attackers
• Considerable engineering skills were put into strengthening and reinforcing the gateway which was the weakest part of the Castle. The main entrance, would be heavily barred. A series of entrances further aided those defending a castle
• Castles with a moat required a drawbridge. The drawbridge consisted of a wooden platform with one hinged side fixed to the castle wall and the other side raised by rope or chains. The purpose of a drawbridge was to hinder or prevent fast and easy entry into a castle
• The Portcullis was a heavy grilled door that was suspended from the Barbican or gatehouse ceiling. The portcullis was meant to be lowered quickly in times of attack. Ropes could be quickly slashed or a fast release catch was enabled. The portcullis would come crashing down blocking the entrance to the castle, the spikes impaling the enemy soldier

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• Attacking Medieval Castles
• • Starvation - works well on geographically isolated castles and castles which can be easily surrounded. Similar to denial of the water supply. Difficult when access can be made along a wide river or by approaching from the sea.
     
     
   
  •   Mining - some of the most stubborn castles were breached by tunnelling under the walls and starting fires which would lead to a collapse of the supporting earth. Interestingly this was still a valid means of attack in the 1st world war along the Western Front.
     
     
   
  •   Treachery, surprise and stupidity - Chateau Gaillard was breached through an unguarded chapel window and Beziers fell when the defenders rushed out enthusiastically leaving the gate undefended.  
     
      The other means of castle attack tended to involve machines, either stone throwing like a trebuchet or a battering ram. Read about the world's largest trebuchet at Warwick Castle.
• Defending Castles
• Location - perched high on a hill with limited and difficult access; surrounded by wet ground to make access difficult and mining impossible; built on the coast or around a large river to provide easy access as well as an escape route.
• Shape - a circular castle provided no corners for miners to expose; overhanging circular towers provided clear lines of sight for the archers; concentric castles with many walls made access progressively more difficult; skirts around the base of the castle walls denied battering rams a flat surface as well as providing a slope for the defenders to drop boulders on to so that they would then bounce along the ground and under the cover of advancing battering rams.
• The weakest point was often the castle gateway.
• This led to the design of drawbridges as well as angled entrances and the use of the barbican as a means to restrict access and provide a killing ground where attackers could be controlled and then massacred.
• Castles and Strategy
• Any castle building campaign was designed both to defend a country and to dominate the population.
• situated to split an attacking force, ideally keeping the invaders busy until relief arrived.
• town would grow around remote castles and eventually the two would become consolidated together.
• a castle could control a wide area of countryside.
• geographical location such as near by a good harbour.

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• The trebuchet was developed from the perriere (or petraria) which was basically a stone thrower.
• Oddly the trebuchet arrived just as the curtain walls of castles were becoming much higher
• longbow was developed for use against body armour.
• hand drawn bow could cope as well a mechanically drawn cross bow, and it was a lot quicker as well.
  
• Whilst the longbow was principally a battlefield weapon, the crossbow remained dominant in sieges. The only feature of fortification which was amended for the longbow was the appearance of long arrowslits.

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• Dimensions: Ballistas were around 15 feet across and propelled javelins up to 12 feet long and iron bolts weighing around 5 lbs ⁽⁵⁾. A hand-held crossbow was usually around 24-38 inches in width with a stock around 18 inches. They weighed up to 18 lbs.
• How it worked: It gave the bow a trigger so that it could be shot like a modern gun and therefore not need the immediate muscle power to pull back a string. Instead they used different types of mechanisms like a hook on a belt or a screw to pull the string back.
• Range: By the 15^th century, with a steel crossbow, the range was about 380 yards, sometimes up to 500⁽²⁾. Earlier crossbows were thought to have a point blank range of 70 yards but were more often angled up 45 degrees to give them a range of 350 yards. Highest effective was 150 yards, but still able to kill at 300⁽⁵⁾.

• Materials: Was made, at first, of wood with a sinew string and later slowly added steel or iron to parts of the bow. Early ballistas were made of iron.
• Dates it became popular: Ballistas used much before by even the Romans, small hand crossbows introduced to Europe around the 10th century⁽⁵⁾. The composite crossbow, made with iron and horn was thought to have come into fashion after the First Crusade in 1099, although wooden onces were still in use during the 1200s⁽⁶⁾.
• Dates it declined: Used by armies in Europe until around 1535. Used much later by the Japanese until 1895 and even still in use by some Asian groups⁽⁵⁾.
• Where popular: Popular in France during the Hundred Years War. Most heard of were the Genoese mercenary crossbowmen. Crossbows were used by the English from the 12^th century onward but lost popularity as the longbow came into favor in the 13^th century⁽⁶⁾.

• Who made and how:

   

  Person who made it: Fletcher and bowyer.

   

  Cost: Small crossbows cost around three shillings to five shillings, larger ones five shillings to seven shillings and up to ten shillings. Belt and claw cost around ten pence, a goat's foot lever 25 pence, a cranequin 120 pence, and a windlass 60 pence⁽¹⁾.

   

  Other things needed for it: Quarrels or bolts (both terms for crossbow arrows), hooks or other levers to wind back the string.
• Crossbows first used in early China around 1200 BC and didn't get to Europe for a few centuries⁽⁵⁾.

• Problems for the crossbow:

   
   
  • A longbowman could shoot around three arrows in the same time a crossbowman could shoot one.
   
  • It could not be tilted at all or else the bolt would come loose, and the arms made there need to be a gap in ranks between each archer.
   
  • It was very heavy to carry around and very awkward when marching.
   
  • Very susceptible to weather conditions both because of glue and iron. Believed that the rain before the battle of Crecy helped the English win with their longbows against the damaged crossbows.
   
  • The iron needed for the bow was also needed for armor and other weapons that were more useful⁽⁵⁾.

• Advantages:

   
   
  • Much less strength needed to operate since drawn by mechanical means.
   
  • Much less need for training and very easy to aim.
   
  • The wounds from a quarrel were much more frightful and much more damaging.
   
  • Was more effective than other bows in the right conditions, longer range, and better armor penetration and could be used as a club at close range when out of bolts⁽⁵⁾.

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• The armor used in the Middle Ages was gradually perfected, until at length the knight became a living fortress.
• body protection
• two-handed sword, bow and arrows, crossbow, battle axe, mace, dagger and lance.
• A Medieval knights armor was designed and developed to protect them from any new, and even more lethal, weapons that were introduced during the violent period of the Middle Ages.

• Parts of a Knights Suit of Armor covering the legs and the feet
  The pieces of a knights suit of armor covering the legs and the feet were as follows:

  • The Sabatons were the first parts of a knights suit of armor to be put on. Sabatons were armor for the feet and consisted of riveted iron plates on the boots

  • Greaves were Plate armor which protected the calf and ankles

  • Poleyns were Plate armor which protected the knee cap

  • Cuisses were Plate armor which protected the thigh

  • Spurs - The Spurs were attached to the heel of the foot by straps and used to 'spur' the Knights horse on in battle

• A Dagger, called a roundel, and Sword were attached to the Knights belt. A shield was carried for defence and recognition purposes and displayed the Knights heraldic blazon. Spikes called Gadlings were attached to the knuckles of gauntlets.

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• Medieval Europe
• An improved bloomery, named the Catalan forge, was invented in Catalonia, Spain during the 8th century. Instead of using natural draught air was pumped in by bellows, resulting in better quality iron and an increased capacity. This pumping of airstream in with bellows is known as cold blast, and it increases the fuel efficiency of the bloomery and improves yield. The Catalan forges can also be built bigger than natural draught bloomeries.