Anthony Armstrong's List: Thesis

• For technology to play a role in systemic change, school and district leaders need to have broad and far-reaching goals—a vision for how technology can transform teaching and learning. In one-to-one programs this means understanding how the technology can help a school reach all students, teachers and administrators at all times, through a ubiquitous computing environment.
• One of the factors that most significantly impacted classroom immersion was the level of administrative leadership, as demonstrated through such actions as "involving staff in decisions, setting clear expectations for technology use, encouraging and participating in professional development events, and providing resources and support."
• Research results from the Texas Technology Immersion Pilot (TIP) offer an example of how this works. In evaluating year three of the TIP program, which placed laptop computers in classrooms at 21 middle schools for one-to-one use, researchers found that "students who attend schools that keep laptops in students' hands and encourage the use of laptops at school and at home for academic pursuits, earn higher test scores" and that "the effects of technology immersion on reading and mathematics achievement generally become stronger over time as teachers and students become more accomplished technology users."

• Create a Strategic and Sustainable Plan:

    
   
  • Develop objectives for students, teachers and administrators;
   
  • Align these with district technology and content standards;
   
  • Determine how the program will be evaluated—how you will measure success;

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• In today's technologically driven society information has taken on a new importance as a  commodity (Diem, 1997). The endless, rapid flood of information and disinformation is causing  a great deal of confusion and frustration; those who are ill equipped to handle the information  overload run the risk of falling behind those who have embraced the latest computer technologies  (Titus, 1994)
• According to Dede (1998), the key to preparing children to function in a technology driven  society is to facilitate their ability to master sophisticated, globally-generated knowledge.  There is more information than teachers, textbooks and the social studies curriculum can  deal with. Because of the glut of information students are being exposed to, they need to  learn the skills to become information managers themselves. This includes the acquisition  of critical information literacy skills - skills that can be enhanced by the use of  computer technologies. According to Todd, Lamb and McNicholas (1992), information literacy  is the ability to use information purposefully and effectively. It involves the process of:  defining the tasks for which information is needed, locating appropriate sources of  information to meet needs, selecting and recording relevant information from sources,  understanding and appreciating information from several sources, being able to combine  and organize information effectively for best application, presenting the information  learned in an appropriate way, and evaluating the outcomes in terms of task requirements  and increases in knowledge.
• These tools have the power to stimulate the development  of intellectual skills such as inquiry, reasoning, problem solving and  decision making abilities; critical and creative thinking; and, learning how  to learn (Rose & Ferlund 1997).
• Dwyer et al. (1991) suggest  that to maximize the benefits of computer use it is important to shift the view  of learning from "knowledge instruction" to "knowledge construction."  According to the knowledge construction view, the more important knowledge is  that which is constructed by the students rather than that which is transmitted  by the teacher. Teachers who support this view recognize the importance of the  active involvement of their students in learning and the need for a learning  environment that encourages students' independent exploration of ideas.  Here, the teacher's most important roles are as tutor, co-learner and facilitator  of students' explorations (Budin 1991).
• Less emphasis is  placed on acquiring and presenting information and more on constructing knowledge,  making meaning, drawing on personal life experience and taking responsibility for  learning (Jonassen 1996).
• According to David Jonassen (1996), an expert in the area of constructivist  uses of computer technologies, what is more important is the students' engagement  in cognitive partnership with the technology so that the computer becomes a mind  tool for critical thinking.
• A WebQuest is one example of the  problem-based learning approach to the use of the Internet that has a lot of potential  for both teachers and learners of social studies. A WebQuest is a computer-generated  tool that presents students with a challenging task, scenario, or a problem to solve  using both computer and non-computer based resources  (see for example ).
• They can provide  quicker and easier access to more extensive and current information for students  (Boldt, Gustafson & Johnson 1995).
• Individuals are enabled to  develop further their own unique strengths by being able to access information through  their preferred learning style and through opportunities to represent their learning in  a variety of ways (Wade 1995). Determining more of the direction for their learning creates  feelings of independence and empowerment, promotes creativity, and increases students'  active involvement in their learning, thereby making their learning more personally relevant  (Peck & Dorricott 1994).
• In addition, students are more motivated to explore ideas further using the computer  (Morden 1994).
• Consequently, students write increased amounts, more effectively  and with more fluidity (Dwyer 1994).
• Students need to learn how to frame research questions  in order that the information being accessed from the vast pool of what is available is relevant  to their query. Electronic sources such as the Internet provide current, in depth, firsthand  information and allow for communication with peers and experts around the world. Students also  need the skills to be able to make sound judgments about the vast pool of information they are  now able to access through tools such as the Internet because of the variable quality and  reliability of information. Since there are no official gatekeepers for Internet postings,  students need to learn to be their own critical judges and censors. Without instruction and  practice in how to critically examine and make informed choices, information gathering can  become a mindless exercise in which quantity overrides quality (McKenzie 1997). According to  McKenzie (1997) it is important to question the kind of information being accessed, how that  information is presented, what is being done with it, and when it becomes too much. The abundance  of material accessible, especially via the Internet, can result in students easily getting  side-tracked and spending a great deal of time off task (Gibson & Hart 1996). Furthermore,  this sort of information-gathering exercise does little to promote historical thinking and  understanding, including being able to distinguish between knowing "that" something happened  versus knowing "how" to make sense of the event (Yeager & Morris 1995).
• Students need to be encouraged to conscientiously use critical thinking skills to make both  appropriate and ethical choices when using computer generated information, just as they would  for making judgments about other resource materials being used in the classroom (Risinger 1998).
• As Jamie McKenzie (1997, 2) states that we need a  generation of highly skilled "free range students capable of simultaneously grazing the Net  and reading deeply." Students will also need skills to organize greater masses of information  in effective ways because of the abundance of sources available to them. Additionally, they  will need direction and frequent opportunities for meaning making, for applying the skills of  drawing conclusions from data and for representing their learning for the benefit of others  and themselves.
• With the assistance of computers, teachers can encourage more effective and thoughtful  utilization of information by enhancing the skills required for information access,  discrimination and application.

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  Online Lectures: Benefits for the Virtual Classroom

• Fosnot (1996) has provided a recent summary of these theories and describes constructivist teaching practice. Behaviorist epistemology focuses on intelligence, domains of objectives, levels of knowledge, and reinforcement. Constructivist epistemology assumes that learners construct their own knowledge on the basis of interaction with their environment. Four epistemological assumptions are at the heart of what we refer to as "constructivist learning." 

  1. Knowledge is physically constructed by learners who are involved in active learning.  

  2. Knowledge is symbolically constructed by learners who are making their own representations of action;  

  3. Knowledge is socially constructed by learners who convey their meaning making to others;  

  4. Knowledge is theoretically constructed by learners who try to explain things they don't completely understand.

• Rather  than have the teacher give the students facts and concepts concerning  a particular topic and expect the student to memorize or in some  way internalize that information, teachers would be more likely to  provide the student with learning experiences designed to allow the  student to discover the desired information
• Rather, the information gained in the context of experiences  and social interactions are more meaningful and relevant to the student

• Technology empowers students by engaging students in the learning process.   The nature of the task shifts from teacher centered to student centered. Given   the flexibility of technology to diversify tasks, the activity was designed   to build upon students’ prior knowledge and to address student interests. Research   indicates that challenging and engaging academic tasks that build upon students’   prior knowledge and enable students to construct their own understanding of   the content are more apt to enhance student motivation and increase student   self-confidence in their cognitive abilities (Brophy, 1983; Meece, 1991; Miller   & Meece, 1999).
• Additionally, the use of technology improves student interest due to students’   familiarity with the technology.
• Increased enjoyment in learning is related   to students’ natural affinity for computer-based instruction; consequently,   social studies can become a more attractive subject when computers and the Internet   are included as teaching tools (Cassutto, 2000, pp. 100-101).
• Research touts   technology use in social studies as a purposeful method of instruction to best   meet the needs of students and to promote student interest in the task (Berson,   1996; Martorella, 1997; White, 1999).
• Additionally, technology enables students to accomplish more than they could   without the use of technology. Technology affords students opportunities to   access information and resources to create products far beyond their perceived   capabilities. Research identifies the benefits of technology integration as   the technical aspects to enhance the quality of work, promote access to resources,   positively impact student learning, and promote student metacognitive skills   (Heafner & McCoy, 2001; Scheidet, 2003). With the improved output, students   take pride in the products they create, which increases their self-efficacy.   This self-efficacy can have a positive impact on overall student motivation.   As Brophy (1983) contended, student motivation improves with students’ increased   self-confidence in their abilities to complete the academic task.
• Typical instructional approaches utilized in social studies classes emphasize   ability-related activities such as memorization and rote learning (Martorella,   1997). In contrast, technology facilitates the development of decision-making   and problem-solving, data-processing, and communication skills (National Council   for the Social Studies, 1994). Instruction that builds upon these higher order   tasks generates a collaborative learning environment that promotes self-worth   and enables students to overcome task-avoidance (Covington, 1984). Using technology   to complete assignments changes the learning environment to focus on mastery   learning while promoting cooperative learning. Class is less structured and   diminishes traditional views of competition as a means to motivate.
• As presented   in the case, increased peer communication and collaboration were positive outcomes   of technology integration. Students felt secure in sharing their knowledge and   skills with their peers in the noncompetitive computer lab environment. This   behavior contrasted with behaviors exuded in the traditional classroom, where   students avoided tasks and engagement with their peers.
• Too often teachers sacrifice student  interest for content coverage. In a high stakes testing environment, social  studies teachers are entrenched in methods that rely heavily on lecture and  discussion. This teacher-centered classroom structure does not offer much  opportunity for motivating students to take an interest in social studies  content. Students have no motivation to learn social studies beyond the common  justification of “it will be on the test.” This lack of student interest  inhibits student development of metacognitive skills, which greatly impacts  student achievement.
• To develop a more nurturing and engaging learning environment that promotes  cognitive growth, social studies teachers need to incorporate instructional  practices that are student centered.
• This article advocates the use of technology as a means to  motivate students by engaging students in the learning process
• Consequently,  social studies teachers should incorporate various instructional methods that  provide students with diverse, engaging, and challenging tasks to meet the needs  of all students. This is what technology affords educators and why technology  has the potential to impact student motivation positively and, subsequently,  student learning. The potential that technology offers to positively affect  student achievement is sufficient reason to integrate technology as a means to  motivate students to learn social studies.

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• However, the same computer technology that permeates other sectors of American society and helps to drive our industrial sector has not been fully incorporated in the nation's schools (ISTE, 1999; Morrison & Lowther, 2002).
• Only one-third of teachers reported that they were well prepared to use technology in their classroom instruction (NCES, 2000).
• Moreover, schools and teacher education programs are looking for effective models from teachers who have successfully integrated computer technology into their instruction (Becker, 1998; NCES, 1999).
• A survey of schools conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics reports that fewer than 20% of teachers felt that they were prepared to integrate computer technology into their classroom instruction (NCES, 1999).
• Despite all the time and money invested into putting the hardware and software in place, as Becker (1998) has suggested, "... students still spend most the their school day as if these tools and information resources had never been invented" (p. 24).
• Wright and Shade (1994) suggested that early emergence of classroom computers in the late 1980s and early 1990s put teachers in a quandary, that the integration of computer technology into the curriculum was poorly planned, and that teachers were generally poorly trained. A further difficulty with the introduction of the computer into the classroom was that teachers did not fully understand the role computers should play and often felt threatened with the possibility of being replaced by them (Fuller, 2000; Loveless, 1996). Others feared that the computer would interfere with teacher-student relationships (Laffey & Musser, 1998).
• Hooper and Rieber (1999) described five phases of teachers' use of technology: (a) familiarization, (b) utilization, (c) integration, (d) reorientation, and (e) evolution.
• It was asserted that teachers often do not progress past a utilization stage. In the utilization stage, teachers become prematurely satisfied with their limited use of technology, but lack a positive commitment to it and readily discard the technology at the first sign of trouble. Real change occurs in the integration, or "breakthrough phase," according to Hooper and Rieber (1999, p. 254). In the integration phase, teachers consciously decide to designate certain tasks and responsibilities to technology, so much so that the lesson fails if the technology fails.
• integration means a reliance on computer technology for regular lesson delivery.

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• Research shows that students learn   best when they learn in context—that is, when they can relate   words, concepts, skills, or strategies to prior experience. In fact,   many students are alienated from what they learn in school because   those connections and experiences are absent.
• To maintain their   competitive advantage, workers in industrialized countries will   need to go beyond a mastery of standardized skills to become flexible,   adaptive, lifelong learners of new skills. Yet U.S. schools are   focused more than ever on the “basics,” measuring their   success with standard-ized tests that assess standardized skills.
• To maintain their   competitive advantage, workers in industrialized countries will   need to go beyond a mastery of standardized skills to become flexible,   adaptive, lifelong learners of new skills.
• It is ironic that young people today are often   exposed to more creative and challenging learning experiences in   popular culture than they are in school.
• Let’s   ask ourselves how we can make learning in or out of school more   “game-like”—not in the sense of playing games   in class, but by making the experience of learning as motivating,   stimulating, collaborative, and rewarding as the experience of playing   a well-designed video game.

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• he Potential of Computer-Based Technology

   

  in Secon

• However, the extent to which this potential

   

  is being fully realized in the social studies classroom has not been sufficient-

   

  ly explored.
• For educators to fully take advantage

   

  of the technology available, the technology must be infused more into daily

   

  instruction and not used as a mere appendage during one or two lessons

   

  (Berson, 1996). Yet, articles continually appear that merely list a wealth of

   

  Internet sites with little guidance on how the busy teacher can incorporate

   

  these resources into a lesson or project.

• Dede (1987) expects    that more powerful "cognition enhancers" will be developed, which    will increasingly shift students' foci toward higher-level thinking    tasks required for solving ill-structured problems. Use of these    computer tools will require a substantial shift in the instructional    process, a shift not yet evidenced in social studies classrooms    generally (Ehman and Glenn 1987).
• Effects of Databases. As a tool to pursue inquiry,    social studies educators claim great potential for database use in    the classroom. The research to date lends support to these claims,    showing positive effects of database use on skills relating to    information processing (White 1987), data classification (Underwood    1985), and question asking (Ennals 1985). Ehman and Glenn (1987)    note that databases do not in themselves teach inquiry. Indeed, the    studies thus far underscore the centrality of teachers trained in    inquiry and of structure in instructional materials (White    1987).
• While computer use in schools has grown dramatically    over the last few years, the level of use in social studies    continues to be low compared to other subject areas. According to    Becker (1986), only 1 percent of computer use in grades K-3 was for    social studies, 4 percent in grades 4-8, and 1 percent in grades    9-12.

  Social studies teachers tend to use software tutorials and    drills to deliver or reinforce factual knowledge. In this respect,    they are not much different from teachers in other subject areas.    Much of the available drill and tutorial software for social studies    are "stand-alone" programs, not part of a larger curriculum    package. However, publishing companies are increasingly producing    software that correlate with the content of their textbook    series.

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