Ancient Sumerian Sources

Ancient Sumerian References (2200 - 2000 B.C.E.)

The earliest known reference to these people comes from ancient Sumerian cuneiform tablets. The Sumerians are some of the first known people in recorded existence.

They formed a flourishing, and remarkably advanced society throughout Mesopotamia , particularly southern Mesopotamia (Iraq).

They remain somewhat shrouded in mystery, as their linguistic and ethnic origins are not well known.

Sumerian civilization is proven to have flourished from before 3500 B.C.E.

tablets were dated from the fourth millennium Uruk period, which dates from 3500-3100 B.C.E.

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By the middle of the third millennium, the ancient Sumerians had fine tuned their writing system, and called it "cuneiform". Ancient Sumerian art.

During the Third Dynasty of Ur, documents were uncovered from the reign of Shulgi of Ur, loosely dated from around 2150 - 2000 B.C.E.

In these documents, the two character cuneiform logogram SA.GAZ appeared.

The two characters have no meaning apart from each other, which is very unusual in cuneiform, as most logograms have individual meaning as well.

It translates to the Akkadian word, "Habbatu", or, "brigand", and "highway robber".

It was during this period which an influx of Western Semitic speaking people arrived in Mesopotamia.

Among these people were the Akkadians, and the Amurru, or Amorites.

These people were basically immigrants.

Their status was uncertain, as they represented a new social element within ancient Sumerian culture.

Simultaneous with the arrival of new people, are the appellations SA.GAZ, Habiru, and Habiri, appearing in ancient Sumerian literature.

One usage of SA.GAZ refers to:

"an unclothed people, who travel in dead silence, who destroy everything, whose menfold go where they will - they establish their tents and their camps - they spend their time in the countryside without observing the decrees of my king."

Another ancient Sumerian document deals with SA.GAZ in a legal arena.

"Nannakiag, son of Lugasladda, said to the ensi: 'Anzika, the SA.GAZ, is not my man.' Ur-Mami was sent with him as supervisor. Nannakiag cleared the man with regard to what he said. He did not confirm him regarding SA.GAZ (activity)."

It would seem a certain Anzika, who happened to be SA.GAZ, was accused on that basis alone, due to some recent wrong doing by other SA.GAZ men.

Nannakiag clears Anzika, saying he is not the SA.GAZ man guilty of other SA.GAZ actions. Thus, the SA.GAZ exact legal status seems to be uncertain. This idea is reinforced in other documents.

"Ku-u, Dada-u-numun, Nur-ili, and Zulala were judges. The SA.GAZ sued but was unable to substantiate his case."

"If a man rented a boat, and he set it on a journey, for him, the owner, and its journey...he altered, and the...of the...boat was employed for SA.GAZ activity, the man who rented the boat, the boat he shall restore."

Ancient Sumerian documents show these people were employed in various jobs. One document recorded sheep and cattle being given to SA.GAZ for unspecified government service.

As would prove to be the case in later documents, livestock was often presented as a form of payment to these people.

Another document reveals that the SA.GAZ were active in the Sumerian military.

"Four suits of clothing for the sergeants of the Habiri (were) received by Ibni-Adad...out of the midst of the treasury of Bit-Shamahh from the hand of Ili-ippalsa. Month of Nisanu, 11th day, year Rim-Sin became king."

It is clear from this illustration that the Habiri received clothing for their role in the ancient Sumerian military.

Thus, in their earliest references they are attached to the military as a mercenary-like unit.

They are identified as being separate, but at the same time under the employ of the nation's military.

This is clear evidence of the Habiri acting as mercenaries in as early as perhaps 2150 B.C.E.

Conclusion

It would appear from these references that the SA.GAZ, though a new social element towards the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E., functioned in a variety of roles in ancient Sumeria.

The Habiru were active in government service, the military, the business world, and also dwelt on the outskirts of civilization.

At the same time, they possessed an air of mystery and uncertainty.

Their legal status appeared undefined.

References to their nature and character varied widely, from mercenaries, to an "unclothed people".

There appears no cohesive element which binds these people, other than their social status as being separate from the native population.

To be sure, absent from these earliest references are any allusions to a shared ethnicity.

These were a heterogeneous mixture of people, from different countries, religions, and cultures.

As they splintered off, being forced into exile, they joined up with other similar people, and formed new bands. These bands migrated from west of Sumer, away from their homeland, to find a new home.

The predatorial nature Na'aman discusses can be seen in the root meaning of the logogram SA.GAZ.

As will be shown, the Akkadians adopted the exact Sumerian logogram to refer to a strange and separate people. This logogram was found littered in the Amarna tablets.

Strangely enough, the Sumeria root of SA.GAZ indicates violent and criminal behavior.

Even more, SA.GAZ is an appellation typically used to illustrate the perpetrator of such violent and criminal acts.

That these people were violent cannot be denied.

Violence certainly characterized the "predatorial nature" of exiled people, and the new bands they formed. Violence is identified with "splinter" tribal elements, forced to migrate to new homes and societies.

Yet, to the extent of their guilt in preemptive violence, such conclusions cannot be drawn from this particular Sumerian record.

However, preemptive violence is certainly evident in the Amarna tablets.

The Habiru appear to be an aloof social entity.

These bands were not ethnic groups, but heterogeneous mixtures of people forming social bands, or tribes, and performing a variety of different tasks within their new homes.

The ancient Sumerians were the earliest inhabitants of modern day Iraq. They preceded the Semites and Babylonians, and established an advanced empire stretching from the fifth to the second millenniums B.C.

Samuel Noah Kramer has compiled the most complete and thorough book on the Sumerians, entitled, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.

Kramer's book provides the layman with a unique and insightful glimpse into the ancient Sumerian world!

Ancient Sumerian Sources

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