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** Learning orientations and study contracts - Beaty et al 2005 **
Notions:
learning, orientation, approach, conception, study contract, effort, motivation
The paper is based on students' quotes
Differences in students' orientation to learning strongly influence their experience of learning
It is possible to gain very many different kinds of things from the same course
In describing the learner's orientation to education, we must take account of both institutional and personal contexts of study
Conflict between "getting the grade" and "really learning something"
learning orientations: aims, attitudes, purposes which form the personal context for the individual student's learning
4 study orientations are very useful analytic categories. For the first 3, we can divide between intrinsic and extrinsic orientations (whether or not the students were interested in the content of the course).
** See table and article **
1. academic
intrinsic interest: intellectual interest (choosing stimulating lectures)
extrinsic: education progression (grades and academic progress)
2. vocational
intrinsic: training (relevance of course to future career)
extrinsic: qualification (recognition of qualification's worth)
3. personal
intrinsic: broadening or self-improvement (challenging, interesting material)
extrinsic: compensation of proof of capability (feedback and passing the course)
4. social:
(extrinsic:) having a good time (facilities for sport and social activities)
Study "contract" (internally negotitated by the students with themselves): relationship between students' orientations and their approaches (how and where to spend the most efforts, etc.) to studying.
Long term planning and internal negotiation. The effectiveness of this contract depends of good information
Many lecturers seem unaware of the very different orientations held by their students
Student study in a strategic way to maximise their achievement but within their own definition of what achievement mean
** Evaluating e-learning initiatives - Bastiaens et al 2004 **
Notions:
e-learning, evaluation, framework, reaction, learning, performance
Kirpatrick's four-level evaluation framework:
1. Reaction level: what participants think of the training
2. Learning level: what participants have learned
3. Performance level: to what extent the participants change their behaviour on the job
4. Organization level: monitors the organisational improvement
The evaluation requires a clear plan describing the goal, the object and the criteria
It's also important to specify the evaluation goal, design and arrangements (management and organisational issues)
** A very detailed example is used **
In addition to a detailed elaboration of the framework, it's advisable to take into account general aspects such as authenticity, exploration, scale, time requirements, objectivity required and focus
The approach proposed by Kirpatrick is partial and has to be revised conceptually to be applicable, particularly in e-learning environments today:
- the main problem with the evaluation of satisfaction is the atheoretical approach
- the effect of a course on learning cannot be measured by a simple test just after completion of the course but should be measured in an authentic situation
- it is very difficult to measure the transfer of learning on work behaviours
- the same applies to the measure of the impact on organisations (in terms of results, etc.)
Because a four-level evaluation is quite demanding, it's not wise to perform one for every learning event but only for the implementation of a new media or course type (otherwise, the cost of the evaluation may exceed that of the e-learning initiative itself).
As a minimum, the authors recommend performing an evaluation at the reaction level every time the e-learning event takes place.
Finally, evaluation has to be based on a well-considered theoretical model
** Evaluating courses and teaching - Hounsell 2009 **
Notions:
evaluation, course feedback, research methods, colleagues, students, external, peer
Looks at broadly based approaches that can be tailored to specific contexts and needs
Kinds of feedback which are sought depends on both motives and focus
These considerations are influential in determining not only *how* and *from whom* feedback is to be sought be also *when* it is to be elicited - a dimension that's often overlooked
Sources of feedback, each of which has its strengths and weaknesses:
- students
- teaching colleagues and professional peers
- self-generated
- incidental
The more sources feedback draws on, the more robust
It's also important to consider the methods of feedback (see also Hounsell et al 1997)
Questionnaires are very useful but can generate 'fatigue' and happily, there are alternative approaches, including 'instant' questionnaires, 'one-minute' papers, proformas, focus groups, student panels, structured group discussions, discussion boards.
Techniques used for gathering feedback from colleagues can be adapted for self-generated feedback
Teachers are in a unique position to analyse data gathered but equally crucial is the need to acknowledge that it can benefit from the involvement of others
In many situations, there is no ideal or obvious response to feedback, but rather, an array of options from which a choice has to be made. Sometimes, we may benefit:
- consulting with colleagues because of resource implications
- further probing to pinpoint more precisely the nature of concerns expressed
- getting students' views on the various options under considerations
** Feedback on courses and programmes of study: a handbook - Hounsell et al 1997 **
Notions:
evaluation, course feedback, research methods, colleagues, students, external, peer
** A must read **
Draw from several sources and methods (so as to avoid 'questionnaire fatigue' for example) of feedback, depending on its aim, focus, constraints, etc.
1. Course team colleagues:
- course team interaction
- previewing
2. Students
** Many forms of feedback collection are examined and examples of such tools are given **
- structured discussion
- the pyramid approach
- nominal group technique (NGT)
- student panels
- post-it displays
- email comments and variants
- staff-student consultative committees
- assignment, placement and project logs
- conventional questionnaires
- pro formas
- on-line questionnaires
- one-minute questionnaires
3. External academic colleagues and and professional or industrial peers:
- comment on course materials
- external examiners and assessors
- quality assessment and accreditation
4. Incidental feedback
Exploring technology-mediated learning from a pedagogical perspective - Oliver and Herrington 2003
Notions:
scaffolding, feedback, social, context, collaborative, peer, constructivism
** Characteristics of constructivism **
Three-stage process proposed by the authors that can be used in many settings (including diagram):
1. Designing learning tasks
open-ended learning environments
- authentic context
- authentic activities (give meaning and structure but little directed content) such as task-based, problem-based learning and case study
- authentic assessment seamlessly integrated in the activity, able to provide criteria for marking varied products
According to Toohey, designing activities around outcome results in a performance-based approach though (but authors explanations make sense)
2. Designing learning supports (elements used to provide scaffolding)
usefulness of peer work
- creating collaborative learning activities
- coaching and scaffolding of learning by the teacher and other students
- providing opportunities and support for reflective learning
- encouraging articulation and expression of understanding
3. Designing learning resources
suggestions that content should assume a far lesser role in the design process
use of a variety of resources to provide perspective and leave freedom as far as learning trajectory is concerned
- access to expert performances and the modelling of processes
- multiple roles and perspectives
Examples of programs designed using that framework
The process of experiential learning - Kolb 1993
Notions:
e-learning design, experiential, personal relevance, approach, androgogy, cognitive development, experience, accomodation, assimilation, feedback
A holistic integrative perspective on learning that combines experience, perception, cognition and behaviour
Lewin, Dewey and Piaget: 3 models of experiential learning (see figures)
Accomodation and assimilation
** List of 4 major stages of cognitive growth: 0 to 15 years old **
Characteristics of experiential learning:
1. Learning is best conceived as process
- from an experiential perspective, defining learning in terms of outcomes can lead to a definition of non-learning
- the purpose of education is to stimulate enquiry and skill in the process of knowledge getting
2. Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience
- all learning is re-learning
- cognitive dissonance essential for learning to occur
- job of educator is to implant new ideas, dispose of and modify old ones (important to make learner's thinking apparent): integration leads to more stable and useful knowledge and understandings than substitution
3. The process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world (concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experience)
4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world
- integrated functioning of the total organism
- the major process of human adaptation
5. Learning involves transaction between the person and the environment
fluid, interpenetrative relationship between objective conditions and subjective experience
6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge
- knowledge results from transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge
- intimate relationship between learning and knowledge
- all social knowledge requires an attitude of partial scepticism in its interpretation
** Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience **
A constructivist approach to online college learning - Rovai 2004
Notions:
online, design, constructivism, collaboration, peer, social, community, context, reflection, feedback
References to course evaluation survey
Curricula customised to learners' prior knowledge, teaching strategies tailored to background and responses, open-ended questions that promote extensive dialogue among learners
Authentic tasks, reflective practice, collaborative construction of knowledge through negotiation
Extensive course planning is needed
Students use technology to articulate knowledge, reflect on learning, support meaning making, construct personal representations and mindful thinking
Distance education can be as effective as traditional education when appropriate methods, peer-interaction, timely teacher feedback
Elements that need careful consideration:
1. Presentation of content
Variety of multimedia resources, supportive course overview or welcome page
2. Interactions
Instruction should be design-driven and planned. Topic-based discussions, peer-critique and role-playing. Immediate communication behaviours. Role of instructor varies from content authority to facilitator.
Graded discussions result in stronger participation and sense of community. Socialising.
3. Individual and group activities
Balance between individual work, class discussions (skillfully facilitated so as to trigger self-directed learning and collaboration) and group work.
Group work:
- positive interdependence among learners
- regular group self-evaluation
- behaviours promoting each member's learning
- individual accountability and personal responsibility
- frequent use of social skills
Role of instructor
4. Assessment
Multiple forms of assessment (with some negotiation): discussions, tests, portfolios, individual and group projects
Peer-evaluation, timely feedback
Course evaluation to improve it (references given)
Laying a Foundation for Lifelong Learning: Case Studies of E-Assessment in Large 1st-Year Classes - Nicol 2007
Notions and references:
formative assessment, feedback, self-regulation , self-assessment, autonomy, reflection, peer instruction, vote, confidence testing, time on task
References about the 7 principles of good feedback practice in relation to learner self-regulation.
References about 11 conditions under which assessment supports student learning.
The concepts of self-regulated learning and academic success are central to this paper.
Starting assumption is that students are already engaged in self-regulation but that some students are better at self-regulation than others.
Two case studies showing how ICT can support the development of learner self-regulation. Also provided are some illustrative examples of how learner self-regulation might be supported using multiple-choice tests.
For each case study, outline of mapping between the new settings and the 7 principles.
Example 1: psychology
Task questions are progressively more difficult, responses move from individual to group response and a model answer for comparison at each stage.
Opportunities for constructive formative assessment (scaffolding) linked to supportive peer discussion.
Students positive about experience (collaboration, self-confidence, understanding)
Findings have given them the confidence to propose a radical redesign of the 1st-year class
Example 2: mechanical engineering
Active-learning sessions
Peer-instruction: a form of Socratic Dialogue or ‘teaching by questioning'
Typically:
- teacher briefly explains concept
- MCQ by EVS
- "convince your neighbour that you have the right answer"
- retest or class-wide discussion
- teacher clarifies correct answer
Alternatives:
1: "just-in-time-teaching"
- MCQ: show areas of weakness
- focus of the EVS session is based on these areas of weakness
2
- confidence testing (CBM): students engage in metacognitive thinking
Huge success
More power when assessment principles underpin implementation (as in EVS) and when the implementation blends online/offline interactions (as with just-in-time-teach
Assessment and Learning: Contradictory or Complementary? Assessment for learning in higher education - Boud 1995
There is probably more bad practice and ignorance of significant issues in the area of assessment than in any other aspect of higher education.
We see that we must see both summative and formative aspects of assessment together, at all times.
Every act of assessment gives a message to students about what they should be learning and how they should go about it.
Assessment can encourage passive, reproductive forms of learning while simultaneously hiding the inadequate understanding to which such forms of learning inevitably lead.
Very little attention has been given to the compounding effects of ssessment even when we know that it is the total array of demands in a given period which influences how each one is tackled.
We should develop assessment procedures of high consequential validity
Well-designed assessment practices should be oriented around the key concepts and ideas that students should be able to deal with
The stages of development which illustrates the evolution of our ideas are given details of.
Good assessment now is that which both closely reflects desired learning outcomes and in which the process of assessment has a directly beneficial influence on the learning process
We need to look at the impact of the total package of learning and assessment and not simply at fragments of assessment.
In the holistic conception, the traditional power relationships between student and assessor must be challenged.
This power relationship combined with the judgement vocabulary used in assessing can profoundly absuse learners as it is often hard to make the disctinction between judgement about the work and judgement about the person.
- give descriptive and elaborate feedback which stays away from categorical/"final" statements and language which can abuse students
- shift away from assessment which occurs only at the end of the period of study or which doesn't allow for a response
Notions:
Assessment interpretation, outcomes, consequences, language
Consequential validity
** E-assessment by design: using multiple-choice tests to good effect - Nicol 2007 **
Notions:
EVS, MCQs, self-regulation, peer
A key message is that the power of MCQs (to enhance learning) is not increased merely by better test construction. Power is also achieved by manipulating the context within which these tests are used.
List of limitations to MCQs: better for lower-order skills (?) limited feedback, recognition rather than construction of answer, no role for students setting the goals and standards
The 7 principles of good feedback practice framework provide a clear lens through which to design and evaluate practice
Applying the 7 principles in relation to MCQs:
1. Clarifying goals, criteria and standards
Having students construct the tests themselves
2. Self-assessment and reflection
Administering MCQ in an open-book situation (quality of the questions particularly important). CBM can be used to increase reflection
3. Delivers high-quality feedback
Enhacing MCQ feedback by relating it to other classroom activities
4. Encourages dialogue around learning
Having students work in small groups to construct tests or to comments on tests. Having students to discuss their answer as they're taking the test or to initiate a class discussion of answers to tests
5. Feedback and motivation
Repeating opportunities to take MCQ tests (highly motivating). Motivation further enhanced when this formative procedure is linked to later summative tests of a similar format
6. Closing the gap
Repeating MCQ tests until a satisfactory performance is reached
6. Feedback shaping teaching
MCQs might be presented before students come to a lecture and even linked to homework assignments. The teacher then use the results of tests to identify areas of learning difficulty and to decide where to focus teaching effort in class or in further online tasks (form of "just-in-time teaching")
** Highly interesting list of case studies discussed against those 7 principles **
Increased power can be leveraged from MCQs when they are linked to a clear pedagogical goal and implemented in relation to a coherent set of principles
Supporting student learning: the use of computer-based formative assessment modules - Peat and Franklin 2002
Notions:
formative, summative, MCQs, self-assessment, connections
** Gives very interesting practical information **
More students, higher diversity, less resources, more support needed for students having higher expectations about formative feedback, especially because of other commitments (job, ...)
Changes implemented in a first year Biology course:
- summative and formative weekly quizzes
Commercial product has saved time and money
Benefits: instant feedback, control over order of questions, preference towards questions including diagrams, photo or graphs, multiple choice format, quick to complete
- mock exam to clarify what good performance is
Paper-based, marked by students in their own time from paper-based or web-based info, enter their answers in the web-based version which gives them feedback (helps them identify their understanding, which in turn might indicate the need for some remedial action). Depending on mark, they might be encouraged to use web-based revision materials
- self-assessment modules (SAMs) designed to draw together related parts of a course to help students make connections between topics and to promote a deeper learning strategy through feedback and reinforcement
Each SAM tests on 4 level of understanding of increasing difficulty, with students comparing their work with sample answers.
At the beginning of each SAM, students are directed to a statement of educational rationale (value of self-assessment mainly) and are informed of what each level is testing. They're encouraged to reflect on their experience.
Benefits: being able to choose the level of difficulty, receiving formative feedback even if they quit the module before the end, helps in revising, in understanding the material (especially for level 1 and 2 more concerned with content itself), in indicating areas of improvement, offering diagrams of ideas and being a different approach than the textbook, *relating concepts*
Mix of formative and summative assessment is recommended
(Most materials mentionned are accessible
Types of e-assessment items - Crisp 2007
Notions:
objective testing, norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, diagnostic, summative, formative, validity, reliability
Criterion-referenced assessment: teacher predetermine the acceptable standard that must be reached
Norm-referenced assessment: compares the performance of students agains others in the cohort (relative ranking is important)
Diagnostic assessment: undertaken before learning has occured to identify knowledge and skill level of students so as to adapt learning acivities.
Formative assessment is inseparable from teaching and provide useful feedback to individual students at a critical point in the learning process (collaboration is beneficial)
Test reliability: a test is reliable if it is consistent within itself and across time
Test validity: the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure
Types of objective tests: text input, numeric input, true/false, MCQ, hot spot, ...
One issue that frequently arises when online assessments tasks are marked is that of relative or comparative equivalence in different student responses (eg: when asked to fill in the blanks)
Objective tests provide a number of practical advantages t oboth student and teacher
** List of a several examples of the use of e-assessment applications that test higer order capabilities **
** List of many of the common forms of e-assessment item types **
Aligning assessment with long-term learning - Boud and Falchikov 2006
Notions:
sustainable assessment, lifelong, long-term, participation, community of practice, constructive alignment, feedback, peer, collaboration, formal, informal, context
HE must equip students to learn beyond the academy once it's no longer available
A few limitations of both summative and formative assessment are identified
Ability to be an effective assessor of learning is central to sustainable assessment
Assessment tasks often emphasise problem solutions rather than problem formulation
Students are discouraged from working collaboratively
A few negative influences of assessment on students' behaviours are identified
Need for learners to identify for themselves what they need to learn
Formal features can be identified in what is otherwise taken as informal learning and vice-versa
Sustainable assessment is a way of building on summative and formative assessment to foster longer-term goals
Participating in communities of practice can be a helpful way of viewing students as learners
Learning in educational settings tends to be decontextualised (stark contrast to learning in work and life)
Points to be taken into account for making assessment practices more sustainable:
- importance of a standards-based framework to enabled students to view their own work in the light of acceptable practice
- belief by teachers that all students can succeed
- belief to foster confidence about students' capacity as learners because their beliefs about this affect achievement
- need to consider seperating comments from grades because grades distract from engaging with feedback
- need to focus assessment on learning rather than performance
- vital role of the development of self-assessment abilities
- encouragement of reflective assessment with peers
- ensuring that comments on assessment tasks are actually used to influence further learning
** List of illustrations of thinking about everyday practices that emphasise preparation for learning that is socially constructed, participative, embedded, contextualised **
Balancing Assessment of and Assessment for Learning - Hounsell et al 2007
Notions:
summative, formative, cumulative, assessment, feedback
The numerous challenges and conflicting goals of the twin functions of assessment, that is, Assessment OF learning (often referred to as 'summative' assessment) and assessment FOR learning (often referred to as 'formative' assessment).
Strategies:
- feedfoward assessments
- cumulative coursework
- better understood expectations and standards
- speedier feedback
** Conditions Under Which Assessment Supports Students’ Learning - Gibbs and Simpson 2004-5 **
Notions:
assessment, feedback
We should design assessment, first, to support worthwhile learning, and worry about reliability later
What inluences students most is not the teaching but the assessment.
Students tend to gain higher marks from coursework assignments than from examinations. Courseworks are a better predicator of long term learning. They don't have to be marked to generate the necessary learning.
The trick when designing assessment regimes is to generate engagement with learning tasks without generating piles of marking.
Frequent assignments and detailed (written) feedback are central to student learning.
The most powerful single influence is feedback.
Unlike feedback, grades are often perceived as personal judgement.
In the absence of marks, students read feedback much more carefully and use it to guide their learning.
A. Inluences of assessment on the volume, focus and quality of studying
Conditions:
1. Suficient assessed tasks are provided for students to capture suficient study time
2. These tasks are engaged with by students, orienting them to allocate appropriate amounts of time and effort to the most important aspects of the course
3. Tackling the assessed task engages students in productive learning activity of an appropriate kind
B. The inluence of feedback on learning
Conditions:
4. Suficient feedback is provided, both often enough and in enough detail
5. The feedback focuses on students’ performance, on their learning and on actions under the students’ control, rather than on the students themselves and on their characteristics
6. The feedback is timely in that it is received by students while it still matters to them and in time for them to pay attention to further learning or receive further assistance
7. Feedback is appropriate to the purpose of the assignment and to its criteria for success
8. Feedback is appropriate, in relation to students’ understanding of what they are supposed to be doing
9. Feedback is received and attended to
10. Feedback is acted upon by the student
Using the online environment in assessment for learning: a case-study of a web-based course in primary care - Russell et al 2006
Notions:
assessment, feedback, collaboration, constructivism
3 main dichotomies/classifications of assessment:
- positivist and interepretivist approaches
- formative and summative assessment ("feedback" and "feedout")
- process and product
Characteristics of constructivist teaching and learning are given.
** Characteristics of the on-line Masters programme in primary health care are detailed **
1. Integrating assessment and online collaborative learning processes
The emphasis in "third generation" distance education is on learning as a social process, involving active construction of new knowledge and understandings through group interaction and peer discussion.
** List of theoretical assumptions and perspectives on collaborative learning**
The course design places the collaborative learning experience at the heart of each study unit:
- At first, students study individually
- They then take part in a virtual seminar, including some peer assessment
- They finally take the assignment
The involvement in peer assessment is an important component of the online discussion:
- by looking at some other's attempt at a task, students learn from their own attempts
- they develop lifelong learning skills
- it helps them understand how assessment work
To prompt students into exchanging, discussions are allocated 10% of the assessment.
2. Feedback in the online environment
Feedback has an ‘extraordinarily large and consistently positive’ effect on student learning.
Partly occurs through the online discussions. Also opportunities for personalised one-to-one student/tutor, students/students and tutors/tutors communication.
** List of conditions under which feedback supports learning **
Dangers of overload
Learning-Oriented Assessment: A Technology-Based Case Study - Keppel and Carless 2006
Notions:
summative, formative, assessment, forward-looking feedback, peer learning
Assessment in Hong Kong has generally been characterized as examination-oriented.
Part 1: a framework for "learning-oriented assessment"
Learning-oriented assessment applicable to both summative and formative assessment.
Learning-oriented assessment is about putting learning at the centre of assessment and reconfiguring assessment design so that the learning function is emphasized.
Its components are:
- assessment tasks as learning tasks
- student involvement in assessment processes
- forward-looking feedback
Part 2: implementation of this framework on a multimedia and web authoring module
The module focused on learning about multimedia and how to develop a web site for educational purposes.
The module was taught using blended learning (i.e., a combination of face-to-face learning with online learning) and emphasized peer learning and project-based learning.
4 assessments to distribute students' efforts evenly:
- online discussion (15%)
- reflective journal (15%)
- group project (40%)
- exam (30%)
Multiple assessment strategies to cater to the individual differences of the students.
Emphasis on forward-looking feedback (from tutor and peers)
Evaluation:
Positive responses to peer learning
Potential of project-based learning well understood
we believe it more worthwhile to emphasize the learning potential of peer feedback processes rather than whether peer grading is involved or not.
Assessment load was too heavy.
Summative Assessment in Higher Education: practices in disarray - Studies in Higher Education - Knight 2002
Evidence that student learning is related to engagement in tasks and in communities of practice, in a variety of networks and to the amount and quality of interchanges with others
Strongest influence on learning is surely the assessment procedures
High stakes assessments have trouble with the complex ambitions of higher education curricula and may actually impede them. To compound matters, it should be understood that summative assessment may not be able to deliver what it is widely supposed to.
Reasons why summative assessment can't be completely trusted
One of which is that grades are silent about the learning processes that were applied and that those processes are key to the quality of the knowledge gained and to, among other things, this learn may be transferable to other settings
Responses to those shortcomings:
1. If higher education restricted feedout to achievements about which affordable, reliable and fair judgements could be made, then this narrowing of the range would be a basis from which to work at encouraging shared understandings, and be a release from expensive attempts to do the impossible.
2. There is a need for systems of formative assessment that engage students with feedback about their work in order to signal what else is valued in the curriculum, what might count as fair evidence of achievement in those terms, and to indicate directions for further learning.
3. Higher education institutions may be ill advised to provide feedout about many achievements that are of interest to employers and other stakeholders, but that does not mean that they ought not to help those stakeholders to make judgements about students’ achievements in such areas. Since formative assessment would help students to recognise their achievements, they would be in a position to make their own claims to things that higher education institutions did not warrant....
Notions:
Summative assessment, consequential validity, learning processes
Feedback in interactive lectures using an electronic voting system - Daper 2004
Notions:
vote, feedback, collaboration, MCQs
Increase interactivity in lectures of all sizes
** Suggestions about ways of using the system is available on their web pages: http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~steve/ilig/ **
Lecturers saw ways to use it in their context, sometimes in ways the researchers would never have thought of
Designing brainteasers which may be most productive in the long run, can take a long time and be difficult
A possible improvement would be to collect and document ways different teachers use it, which would inspire imitation
Benefits:
- interactivity keeps students focussed
- anonymity helps them contribute fully
- feedback is valued (provided in short supply, timely, used to self-direct)
- initiation of discussion is enjoyed and productive of deep learning
- allows various tactics for teaching staff (initiating small group discussions, providing students with feedback without having to mark)
- adopt flexible teaching (just-in-time teaching)
** List of challenges given **
** Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice - Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick 2006 **
Notions:
assessment, self-regulation, feedback
References to research showing that effective feedback leads to learning gains
In this model, students are assumed to occupy a central and active role in all feedback processes
Students already possess some of the same evaluative skills as their teacher
Designing environments that make learning processes explicit.
Good feedback practice that strengthens students' self-regulation capacity:
1. helps clarify what good performance is (goals, criteria, expected standards);
=> exemplars, better definitions, discussion and reflection, peer assessment, workshps where students design assessment criteria
2. facilitates the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning;
=> peer assessment, reflection, identifying strenghts/weaknesses, compile a portfolio
3. delivers high quality information to students about their learning;
=> regular feedback, linked to pre-defined criteria, timely feedback, corrective advice, prioritarising and limiting amount of feedback, online tests
4. encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning;
=> teacher/student dialogue, peers dialogue, feedback discussion, peer feedback (esp. before submission), group projects about criteria before assessment begins.
5. encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem;
=> praise effort and strategic behaviours, many low-stakes assessment, marks after response to feedback, re-writing of work, automated testing with feedback, drafts and resubmissions
6. provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance;
=> feedback on work in progress, resubmissions, 2 stage assignments with stage 1 feedback helping stage 2, provide "action point" or model strategies, involve students in identifying own action points in class
7. provides information to teachers that can be used to help shape the teaching.
=> one-minute papers, students requesting feedback they'd like, identifying where're they're having difficulties, identifying (in groups), "a question worth asking"
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