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** Situated cognition and the culture of learning - Brown et al 1989 **
Notions:
situated cognition, community, activity, authentic activity, induction, abstraction, cognitive apprenticeship, enculturation, social, collaboration
A must-read, seminal paper
Example of learning words from dictionary definition compared to learning vocabulary outside of school shows the situated nature of cognition
A concept is always under construction
Tools share significant features with knowledge:
- only fully understood through use
- using them entails changing the user's view of the world and adopting the belief system of the culture in which they are used
It isn't possible to use a tool properly without understanding the community or culture in which it's used
** Learning is a process of enculturation which must involve activity, concept and culture in a collaborative way **
School activity too often tends to be hybrid, implicitly framed by one culture but explicitly attributed to another, which limits students' access to the structuring cues that arise from the context.
It is often very different from what authentic practictioners do (and from what people do when they naturally learn) and students rely on cues that are not those of real practitioners (authentic culture of an authentic community vs school culture)
In authentic settings, the problem statement is also the solution and the procedure for solving it.
Problem solving isn't carried out solely in the heads but in conjunction with the environment. Even students do that in unexpected ways in school but this becomes ineffective in authentic settings.
Cognitive apprenticeship methods try to enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction
** Very helpful examples illustrating excellent and natural learning strategies are provided **
- continuity with familiar knowledge
- several cases leading to students generating their own learning path (and participating in the community's activity)
- abstraction
All of which are carried out collaboratively with the teacher becoming a facilitator of the process
Desinging Courses For Higher Education (Society for Research into Higher Education): Toohey: Amazon.co.uk: Books
The book suggested by Siân
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Desinging Courses For Higher Education
** Evaluating e-learning initiatives - Bastiaens et al 2004 **
Notions:
e-learning, evaluation, framework, reaction, learning, performance
Kirpatrick's four-level evaluation framework:
1. Reaction level: what participants think of the training
2. Learning level: what participants have learned
3. Performance level: to what extent the participants change their behaviour on the job
4. Organization level: monitors the organisational improvement
The evaluation requires a clear plan describing the goal, the object and the criteria
It's also important to specify the evaluation goal, design and arrangements (management and organisational issues)
** A very detailed example is used **
In addition to a detailed elaboration of the framework, it's advisable to take into account general aspects such as authenticity, exploration, scale, time requirements, objectivity required and focus
The approach proposed by Kirpatrick is partial and has to be revised conceptually to be applicable, particularly in e-learning environments today:
- the main problem with the evaluation of satisfaction is the atheoretical approach
- the effect of a course on learning cannot be measured by a simple test just after completion of the course but should be measured in an authentic situation
- it is very difficult to measure the transfer of learning on work behaviours
- the same applies to the measure of the impact on organisations (in terms of results, etc.)
Because a four-level evaluation is quite demanding, it's not wise to perform one for every learning event but only for the implementation of a new media or course type (otherwise, the cost of the evaluation may exceed that of the e-learning initiative itself).
As a minimum, the authors recommend performing an evaluation at the reaction level every time the e-learning event takes place.
Finally, evaluation has to be based on a well-considered theoretical model
** Evaluating courses and teaching - Hounsell 2009 **
Notions:
evaluation, course feedback, research methods, colleagues, students, external, peer
Looks at broadly based approaches that can be tailored to specific contexts and needs
Kinds of feedback which are sought depends on both motives and focus
These considerations are influential in determining not only *how* and *from whom* feedback is to be sought be also *when* it is to be elicited - a dimension that's often overlooked
Sources of feedback, each of which has its strengths and weaknesses:
- students
- teaching colleagues and professional peers
- self-generated
- incidental
The more sources feedback draws on, the more robust
It's also important to consider the methods of feedback (see also Hounsell et al 1997)
Questionnaires are very useful but can generate 'fatigue' and happily, there are alternative approaches, including 'instant' questionnaires, 'one-minute' papers, proformas, focus groups, student panels, structured group discussions, discussion boards.
Techniques used for gathering feedback from colleagues can be adapted for self-generated feedback
Teachers are in a unique position to analyse data gathered but equally crucial is the need to acknowledge that it can benefit from the involvement of others
In many situations, there is no ideal or obvious response to feedback, but rather, an array of options from which a choice has to be made. Sometimes, we may benefit:
- consulting with colleagues because of resource implications
- further probing to pinpoint more precisely the nature of concerns expressed
- getting students' views on the various options under considerations
** Feedback on courses and programmes of study: a handbook - Hounsell et al 1997 **
Notions:
evaluation, course feedback, research methods, colleagues, students, external, peer
** A must read **
Draw from several sources and methods (so as to avoid 'questionnaire fatigue' for example) of feedback, depending on its aim, focus, constraints, etc.
1. Course team colleagues:
- course team interaction
- previewing
2. Students
** Many forms of feedback collection are examined and examples of such tools are given **
- structured discussion
- the pyramid approach
- nominal group technique (NGT)
- student panels
- post-it displays
- email comments and variants
- staff-student consultative committees
- assignment, placement and project logs
- conventional questionnaires
- pro formas
- on-line questionnaires
- one-minute questionnaires
3. External academic colleagues and and professional or industrial peers:
- comment on course materials
- external examiners and assessors
- quality assessment and accreditation
4. Incidental feedback
** E-tivities: the key to active online learning - Salmon 2002 **
Notes:
e-learning design, induction, development, collaboration, social, peer, activities, tasks
1. The 5 stage framework and e-tivities
I HAVEN'T READ THAT CHAPTER ENTIRELY YET BUT I WOULD CERTAINLY BENEFIT FROM DOING SO
Her model makes an argument for increasing the skills and comfort of online learners through the use of appropriately scaffolded learning activities over five stages
(very effectively applied on IDEL, which first few weeks were like an introduction to the whole Masters)
** Figure 2.1 (p. 11) an the text in front are crucial as it sums it all up nicely **
2. Resources for practitioners: 5 spark ideas for e-tivities
** Fantastic and inspiring list of e-tivities that can be applied (sometimes needs adaptation) at the various stages of the model **
Stage 1: Access and motivation
Quick e-tivities; giving practice with technology; offer 1-1 support for anyone in need; provide rationale
Stage 2: Online socialization
Getting to know each other; understanding the approach the group will take; impatience means that some e-tivities will need to be disguised a little; watch for issues of equality when using humour (netiquette?)
Stage 3: Information exchange
Suggest and model strategies for active online learning; help participants to deal with mass of messages; help them personalise and prioritise learning tasks and social interactions
Stage 4: Knowledge construction
Stage 5: Development
Try to allow maximum choice; make summaries and archives accessible; focus on self-reflection and evaluation of the learning (often assessable to ensure alignment)
Learners still learn from experience when online - Alexander and Boud 2001
Notions:
online learning, approach, conception, experience, interactivity, computer conferencing, simulation, game, social, reflection
The environment makes some activities possible and constrains others but it doesn't change the fundamental processes of human learning.
Given the nature of online learning, it is particularly productive to view it as examples of students' learning from experience.
Much of the early use of internet in teaching has been to reproduce existing practices (and often ineffective practices)
It is critical for learning designers to provide activities to facilitate students' engaging with and making sense of (reflection, active construction and social construction) the content delivered.
Earlier study identified 5 propositions about learning from experience:
- experience is the foundation of and the stimulus for learning
- learners actively construct their own experience
- learning is a holistic process
- learning is socially and culturally constructed
- learning is influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it occurs
Potential of interactivity and communications.
Affordances: analogue of what skilled and experienced teachers do to engage learners in those aspects of the curriculum that will have the most impact on their learning.
Crucial role of the moderator in designing and facilitating learning activities that assist learners to learn from experience. Key features include:
- establishment of a climate for learning that values the learner
- active engagement with problems and challenges
- interactivity and responsiveness
- simulation of rich environments
- peer discussion
Examples of online debate and role-play/simulation.
List of the ideas included by the design features of an online debate, role-plays and simulations to afford learning from experience
Need to test what is regarded as affordances to see if it works.
Learning doesn't occur in isolation and isn't a purely intellectual enterprise: a function of the emotional and personal support we gain from others.
** Writing and using learning outcomes - Moon 2002 **
VERY USEFUL READ
learning outcomes, criteria, objectives, aims, benchmark, threshold
Aims (which provide a useful addition to learning outcomes) refer to teaching intentions while learning outcomes refer to expected learning
Examples of aims are given
Learning outcomes should be written at threshold (minimum acceptable standard: pass-fail line)
When outcomes are precise, assessment criteria are less critical
List of some uses of learning outcomes
A definition and examples are given
Some form of module may seem problematic for description of learning outcomes in advance
Use of "expected to be able"
3 parts:
- a verb that indicates what the learner is expected to be able to do
- a word or words that indicate on what or with what the learner is acting (if outcome is about skills then the words may describe the way the skill is performed)
- a word or words that indicate the nature (in context or in terms of standard) of the performance required as evidence that the learning has been achieved
Since, learning outcomes are written at threshold:
- if one component of a multiple outcome is not met by a student, he *theoretically* fails the whole outcome
- if a student fails to attain one or more outcomes, he *theoretically* fails the whole module
Another common fault is when outcomes refer to the learning instead of the representation of learning
It's important for learning outcomes to be written at threshold so that students have a "safe" place for exploring new ideas, creative approaches, etc.
** A list of vocabulary is given for various levels of learning **
While all learning outcomes need to be assessable, they may not all be assessed in practice (eg. when a student has a choice as to which question to answer in an exam)
** Aligning teaching for constructing learning - Biggs 2003 **
Notions
constructive alignment, intended learning outcome, activities, assessment, declarative, functioning
In a good system, such as constructive alignment, all aspects of teaching and assessment are tuned to support high level learning
An example of a poor system is given
"Constructive": constructivism
"Alignment": key is that all components in the system, especially the teaching methods used and the assessment tasks, are aligned with the learning activities assumed in the learning outcomes
1. Defining the intended learning outcomes (ILOs)
Declarative knowledge is content.
Functioning knowledge is skills in applying that content appropriately (more essential)
The first step in designing the curriculum objectives is to make clear what levels of understanding we want from our students in what topics, and what performances of understanding would give us that knowledge.
2. Choosing activities likely to lead to the ILOs
Beyond lectures and tutorials, activities that take place outside of class such as interactive group work, peer teaching, independent learning and work-based learning are rich sources of relevant activities
3. Assessing students' actual learning outcomes to see how well they match what was intended
As far as the students are concerned, the assessment is the curriculum.
Making sure the assessment tasks mirror the ILOs is critical
4. Arriving at a final grade
Matching perfomance against the criteria is not a matter of counting marks but of making holistic judgments
Assessment: a critical perspective - Reynolds and Trehan 2000
Notions:
e-learning, assessment, design, control, power, authority, peer, social, participation, hierarchy
Assessment is a primary location for power relations
Development of less hierarchical approaches to learning and teaching.
Corresponding changes in the practice of assessment are harder to find
** Sharing the procedures of assessment doesn't necessarily result in more democratic processes: **
- may cause anxiety and frustration
- ambiguity resulting from the redefinition of the tutor's role
- make reasonable expectations as to what the students will be able to do
- if students know that the tutors will intervene if the marking is unsatisfactory, then the marking can't be said to participative or empowering
- fear of receiving a bad mark if a bad one is given
- differences present in learning groups: granting of freedoms by the teacher can result in that control being taken by another agency
Individuals' status and influence informed by who they are in the wider society, in relation to age, gender, sex and race.
Perceived ability may also play a role
Operating assessment methods which encourage learners to be supportive to fellow learners while developing their skills in critically evaluating the work of others, is a challenging, complex process
Putting into practice participative assessment requires tutors to be prepared and able to work with the complex social processes which are generated. If not, traditional practice may be preferable.
Empowering pedagogy doesn't dissolve the authority or power of the instructor. It does move (if previously mentionned barriers successfully addressed) from power as domination to power as creative energy.
Classrooms needn't always reflect an equality of power, but they must reflect movement in that direction.
** Writing and using assessment criteria - Moon 2002 **
** READING THE ARTICLE ITSELF IS ESSENTIAL **
Criteria may be developed more closely with either:
- the learning outcome (leaving freedom as to the choice of method to be devised)
- the assessment methods
Criteria implies criterion-referenced assessment
Criteria help students understand what's expected of them
Precision in writing the criteria is sometimes more appropriate than others: mustn't detract from the challenge of the task
Use the form "The student will..."
Assessment criteria should relate to learning outcome in a clear and transparent way (vocabulary used may mean different things to different people)
Weighting system may be superimposed in many assessment situations
Two main forms:
1. threshold assessment criteria: standard to reach to demonstrate achievement (pass-fail line)
More detailed representation of the learning outcome.
All should be reached
2. grade assessment criteria: standard to reach to get a particular grade (more motivating and rewarding for the learner)
Relationship between outcome and criteria should be overt at the pass-fail line but thereafter can be separate
Helpful to write and communicate "desirable learning outcomes": grade assessment criteria are then guided by both learning outcome (provides the pass-fail point info) and desirable learning outcome
If weighting is part of the development of the development of grade assessment criteria, the conditions set by the learning outcomes all have to be achieved successfully
** Quite useful figure illustrating the basic model of module/development taking into account grading criteria **
** Lots of example of different forms of assessment criteria and learning outcomes **
The politics of education - Rogers 1994
Notions:
course, design, approach, traditional, experiential, person-centered, humanistic, power, control, social
The characteristics of both traditional and person-centered approaches are given
Their underlying politics (control and the making of choices) are explained
The threat of the person-centered approach:
- for the teacher or administrator, fearful aspects of sharing power and control
- for the student: habit of being directed (they want the continuance of security of being told what to do)
** It's possible to move a whole profession towards a more humanistic, person-centered approach: compelling example in the field of medicine **
** In comparison, several reasons explain why such example are much less common in the field of education: **
- No desire to change?
- Medics are used to learn all the time (from mistakes, feedback, because of innovations, etc.)
- Much less incentive exist for educators
- Educators often don't learn about the curiosity killed, about the people damaged, etc.
- Similarly, educators rarely see their successes
- Rigid power structure
Exploring technology-mediated learning from a pedagogical perspective - Oliver and Herrington 2003
Notions:
scaffolding, feedback, social, context, collaborative, peer, constructivism
** Characteristics of constructivism **
Three-stage process proposed by the authors that can be used in many settings (including diagram):
1. Designing learning tasks
open-ended learning environments
- authentic context
- authentic activities (give meaning and structure but little directed content) such as task-based, problem-based learning and case study
- authentic assessment seamlessly integrated in the activity, able to provide criteria for marking varied products
According to Toohey, designing activities around outcome results in a performance-based approach though (but authors explanations make sense)
2. Designing learning supports (elements used to provide scaffolding)
usefulness of peer work
- creating collaborative learning activities
- coaching and scaffolding of learning by the teacher and other students
- providing opportunities and support for reflective learning
- encouraging articulation and expression of understanding
3. Designing learning resources
suggestions that content should assume a far lesser role in the design process
use of a variety of resources to provide perspective and leave freedom as far as learning trajectory is concerned
- access to expert performances and the modelling of processes
- multiple roles and perspectives
Examples of programs designed using that framework
Experiential learning and learning styles
Great work that shows the relationships between the Kolb cycle stages and preferred learning styles.
Quite useful
Feminist challenges to curriculum design - Parsons 1993
Notions
e-learning, design, socially critical, feminist, emancipation, gender, language, social context
1. Critical challenge: questioning the present order of things, suggesting there are reasons of various nature for considering serious alternatives
Demonstrating the potent interaction of personal and social factors which combine to form the context of gender identity and relathionships in which we live: embedded in society and in educational structures making its authority more elusive and powerful
Areas of criticism:
- attitudes to gender: notion of what boys and girls should be educated in or for often related to their natures as males and females
- language: women excluded from participation in discourse by being redered invisible (use of masculine pronouns, male as standard from which female is the derivative, ...)
- analysis of the education social milieu which often reinforces a conservative view but which could also be a liberating recognition
** Very useful example of how to implement this through course design **
2. Constructive challenge: develop new practices, think open-mindedly about methods and resources, *redraw the map of traditional academic disciplines*
Bring about positive changes in attitudes, language and power relations
3 approaches:
- liberal feminism: search for equality of treatment, opportunity and status (most easy approach to accomodate but commitment to it never run very deep)
- radical feminism: because women are understood to be be unique and have special contibutions to make in all areas, educational objective must be centred on the nurturing and development of women in their own right (effective in the long run?)
- social feminism: focus on change that benefits all (examining gender assumptions underlying disciplines lays the foundation for redrawing them when needed)
** Three types of approaches illustrated in the handling of a philosophy syllabus: each viewpoint has something to offer **
Highlights some of the challenges in this endeavour
YouTube - Networked Student
Very nice video that most likely illustrates and experiential approach to course design
A constructivist approach to online college learning - Rovai 2004
Notions:
online, design, constructivism, collaboration, peer, social, community, context, reflection, feedback
References to course evaluation survey
Curricula customised to learners' prior knowledge, teaching strategies tailored to background and responses, open-ended questions that promote extensive dialogue among learners
Authentic tasks, reflective practice, collaborative construction of knowledge through negotiation
Extensive course planning is needed
Students use technology to articulate knowledge, reflect on learning, support meaning making, construct personal representations and mindful thinking
Distance education can be as effective as traditional education when appropriate methods, peer-interaction, timely teacher feedback
Elements that need careful consideration:
1. Presentation of content
Variety of multimedia resources, supportive course overview or welcome page
2. Interactions
Instruction should be design-driven and planned. Topic-based discussions, peer-critique and role-playing. Immediate communication behaviours. Role of instructor varies from content authority to facilitator.
Graded discussions result in stronger participation and sense of community. Socialising.
3. Individual and group activities
Balance between individual work, class discussions (skillfully facilitated so as to trigger self-directed learning and collaboration) and group work.
Group work:
- positive interdependence among learners
- regular group self-evaluation
- behaviours promoting each member's learning
- individual accountability and personal responsibility
- frequent use of social skills
Role of instructor
4. Assessment
Multiple forms of assessment (with some negotiation): discussions, tests, portfolios, individual and group projects
Peer-evaluation, timely feedback
Course evaluation to improve it (references given)
** Constructivism and troublesome knowledge - Perkins 2006 **
Notions:
collaboration, constructivism, course design, threshold concept, dissonance, ways of thinking and practicing, tunnel vision, transfer, episteme, active learning
See also Bransford et al 2000
Constructivism as a toolkit rather than a credo
The social and creative elements can contribute richly to learning but they aren't as constitutive to constructivism as active learning
Constructivism more time-consuming and cognitively demanding than "transmission", while not always effective (performance-oriented learners)
Good teachers know what knowledge is troublesome and draw constructivist approaches to address it
Five sorts of troublesome knowledge: ritual, inert, conceptually difficult, foreign and tacit knowledge
- Make knowledge meaningful
- Good mastery, diverse practice and mindful abstraction
- Active problem-solving with knowledge connected to learners' world
- Active problem-solving where concepts are acquired through medium-scale project
- Confront students with discrepancies in their initial theories
- Introduce learners to metaphors or have them invent their own
- Exploration and model building before presenting the official story
- Ientify and elaborate alternative perspectives
- Debates requiring reprensenting differnet viewpoints
- Role playing that requires learners to get into mindsets different from their own
- "Surfacing and animating" tacit assumptions
- Authentic problem-based learning that foreground the game of the discipline
- Surfacing the game through analytic discussion and deliberate practice
- Combination of self-management and explicit modeling
Much of what is difficult about concepts concern the conceptual games around them
Threshold concepts change learners' ways of perceiving and thinking
Learning the language of the discipline involves threshold-like transitions, as do the discipline’s ways of thinking and practising (episteme)
Providing proof machines
Try various constructivist approaches. If not particularly troublesome, teaching by telling may be sufficient
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