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"A non-specific "top-heavy" configuration bias has been proposed to
explain neonatal face preference (F. Simion, E. Valenza, V. Macchi Cassia, C.
Turati, & C. Umiltà,
2002
). Using an eye tracker (Tobii T60), we investigated
whether the top-heavy bias is still present in 3- to 5.5-month-old infants and
in adults as a comparison group. Each infant and adult viewed three classes of
stimuli: simple geometric patterns, face-like figures, and photographs of faces.
Using area of interest analyses on fixation duration, we computed a top-heavy
bias index (a number between −1 and 1) for each individual. Our results showed
that the indices for the geometric and face-like patterns were about zero in
infants, indicating no consistent bias for the "top-heavy" configuration. In
adults, the indices for the geometric and face-like patterns were also close to
zero except for the T-shaped figure and the ones that had higher rating on
facedness. Moreover, the indices for photographs of faces were positive in both
infants and adults, indicating significant preferences for upright natural faces
over inverted ones. Taken together, we found no evidence for the top-heavy
configuration bias in both infants and adults. The absence of top-heavy bias
plus a clear preference for photographed upright faces in infants seem to
suggest an early cognitive specialization process toward face representation."

China 2011 tobii eye tracking face vision processing non-specific bias top-heavy configuration looking preferences infants faces upright patterns

in list: General Eye Tracking, Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
The effect of layout in the comprehension of design pattern roles in UML class diagrams is assessed. This work replicates and extends a previous study using questionnaires but uses an eye tracker to gather additional data. The purpose of the replication is to gather more insight into the eye gaze behavior not evident from questionnaire-based methods. Similarities and differences between the studies are presented. Four design patterns are examined in two layout schemes in the context of three open source systems. Fifteen participants answered a series of eight design pattern role detection questions. Results show a significant improvement in role detection accuracy and visual effort with a certain layout for the Strategy and Observer patterns and a significant improvement in role detection time for all four patterns. Eye gaze data indicates classes participating in a design pattern act like visual beacons when they are in close physical proximity and follow the canonical layout, even though they violate some general graph aesthetics.

USA 2010 Cognitive Tobii eye tracking 1750 Clearview layout UML class diagram patterns role detection

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
Multimodal interaction in everyday life seems so effortless. However, a closer look reveals that such interaction is indeed complex and comprises multiple levels of coordination, from high-level linguistic exchanges to low-level couplings of momentary bodily movements both within an agent and across multiple interacting agents. A better understanding of how these multimodal behaviors are coordinated can provide insightful principles to guide the development of intelligent multimodal interfaces. In light of this, we propose and implement a research framework in which human participants interact with a virtual agent in a virtual environment. Our platform allows the virtual agent to keep track of the user’s gaze and hand movements in real time, and adjust his own behaviors accordingly. An experiment is designed and conducted to investigate adaptive user behaviors in a human-agent joint attention task. Multimodal data streams are collected in the study including speech, eye gaze, hand and head movements from both the human user and the virtual agent, which are then analyzed to discover various behavioral patterns. Those patterns show that human participants are highly sensitive to momentary multimodal behaviors generated by the virtual agent and they rapidly adapt their behaviors accordingly. Our results suggest the importance of studying and understanding real-time adaptive behaviors in human-computer multimodal interactions.

USA 2010 HCI Tobii eye tracking 1750 interact virtual adjust behavior patterns human-computer

in list: HCI & Usability

CONTEXT
Early identification efforts are essential for the early treatment of the symptoms of autism but can only occur if robust risk factors are found. Children with autism often engage in repetitive behaviors and anecdotally prefer to visually examine geometric repetition, such as the moving blade of a fan or the spinning of a car wheel. The extent to which a preference for looking at geometric repetition is an early risk factor for autism has yet to be examined.

OBJECTIVES
To determine if toddlers with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) aged 14 to 42 months prefer to visually examine dynamic geometric images more than social images and to determine if visual fixation patterns can correctly classify a toddler as having an ASD.

DESIGN
Toddlers were presented with a 1-minute movie depicting moving geometric patterns on 1 side of a video monitor and children in high action, such as dancing or doing yoga, on the other. Using this preferential looking paradigm, total fixation duration and the number of saccades within each movie type were examined using eye tracking technology.

SETTING
University of California, San Diego Autism Center of Excellence.

PARTICIPANTS
One hundred ten toddlers participated in final analyses (37 with an ASD, 22 with developmental delay, and 51 typical developing toddlers).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE
Total fixation time within the geometric patterns or social images and the number of saccades were compared between diagnostic groups.

RESULTS
Overall, toddlers with an ASD as young as 14 months spent significantly more time fixating on dynamic geometric images than other diagnostic groups. If a toddler spent more than 69% of his or her time fixating on geometric patterns, then the positive predictive value for accurately classifying that toddler as having an ASD was 100%.

CONCLUSION
A preference for geometric patterns early in life may be a novel and easily detectable early signature of infants and toddlers at risk for autism.

USA 2010 developmental Tobii eye tracking T120 autism risk factors geometric patterns visual Preference

in list: Developmental Research

SUMMARY
This study examined the eye movement patterns of users browsing a web-based portal interface. Results demonstrate consistent scan patterns in both 2 and 3-column portal layouts. In the 2-column portal, users viewed the page through the top, left channel and proceeded to scan the rest of the portal page in a reverse 'S' pattern by row. In the 3-column portal layout, users typically started scanning in the top, center channel, and then proceeded to scan in a reverse 'S' pattern through the rest of channels by row. Implications of these results to portal design are discussed.

2010 USA Tobii eye tracking 1750 HCI Usability users browse portal website patterns scan column layout

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Objective: Using eye-tracking technology, we aim to examine if there are common patterns of visual attention strategies employed by surgeons that are associated with a greater chance of successful reorientation when disorientated during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
Summary Background Data: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is one of the most commonly practiced minimally invasive procedures with a recognized morbidity relating to bile duct injuries. It has been suggested that the majority of bile duct injuries occur as a result of operator disorientation.
Methods: A total of 21 surgeons of varying experience participated in the study. Attention as represented by gaze was captured, as subjects were presented with 8 images of various stages of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy with the task of interpreting the orientation of the image. Subject fixations on relevant anatomic structures within the images were analyzed and a visual behavior profiling algorithm was applied to compare the behavior of individual surgeons.
Results: No difference in orientation performance between seniority levels or with laparoscopic experience was found. Key structures used as "anchor objects" to successfully orientate at various stages of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy were unveiled, and a representative successful visual attention behavior for each stage of the operation was described.
Conclusion: There are discernable and quantifiable visual attention strategies used by surgeons during laparoscopic cholecystectomy associated with successful orientation. By quantifying visual behavior and by inference attention processes of surgeons, this study represents an initial step in attempting to decrease the morbidity associated with disorientation. This study raises some important questions. First, can these common reorientation strategies be taught to aspiring surgeons as part of a curriculum thereby decreasing the learning curve associated with the apparent need for experience in laparoscopy? Second, can these common reorientation strategi

2010 UK Tobii eye tracking 1750 patterns reorientation orientation disorientation strategy laparoscopic cholecystectomy surgery medical

in list: Medical research

ABSTRACT
Visual fixation patterns whilst viewing complex photographic scenes containing one person were studied in 24 high-functioning adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and 24 matched typically developing adolescents. Over two different scene presentation durations both groups spent a large, strikingly similar proportion of their viewing time fixating the person's face. However, time-course analyses revealed differences between groups in priorities of attention to the region of the face containing the eyes. It was also noted that although individuals with ASD were rapidly cued by the gaze direction of the person in the scene, this was not followed by an immediate increase in total fixation duration at the location of gaze, which was the case for typically developing individuals.

UK 2010 Tobii eye tracking autism spectrum disorder cues attention fixation patterns face neuropsychology

in list: Neuropsychology

ABSTRACT
Simion, Valenza, Macchi Cassia, Turati, and Umiltà (2002) suggested that newborns preferred “top-heavy” stimuli and such bias may account for neonatal face preference. However, convergent evidence for the discriminability between the top-heavy versus bottom-heavy patterns has not been demonstrated. We used a modified familiarization/novelty procedure (Chien, Palmer, & Teller, 2003) to assess basic discriminability between “top-heavy” and “bottom-heavy” geometric patterns in 2- to 4.5-month-old infants. Each infant were tested with three types of top-heavy and bottom-heavy geometric figures and received both familiarized-to-top-heavy and familiarized-to-bottom-heavy conditions. If infants of this age can discriminate the two configurations and there is no intrinsic bias toward either pattern, we expected to see significant and about equal novelty effects in both familiarization conditions. If there is a strong intrinsic bias for the top-heavy configuration, we expect to see a greater preference for the top-heavy patterns in the familiarization-to-bottom-heavy condition. Our results (N = 24) showed significant and equal novelty preferences in both familiarization conditions across age and figure types, suggesting a reliable discriminability between top-heavy and bottom-heavy configurations and there is no intrinsic bias towards either configuration at this age.

China 2010 Tobii eye tracking T60 Developmental face preference geometric patterns bias discrimination intrinsic

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we describe how eyetracking has been used in exploratory experiments to inform the design of screening tests for dyslexic students by examining their eye gaze while reading Arabic texts. Findings reveal differences in the intensity of eye gaze and reading patterns between dyslexic readers and non-dyslexic controls. Dyslexics consistently exhibited longer fixation durations, shorter saccades, and more regressions. Moreover, results suggest that eye movement patterns are a reflection of the cognitive processes occurring during reading of texts in both Arabic deep and shallow orthographies. Applicability of eye movement analysis in investigating the nature of the reading problems and tailoring interventions to the particular needs of individuals with dyslexia is discussed.

Saudi Arabia 2010 Tobii eye tracking X120 dyslexia Arabic learning reading patterns Linguistic

in list: Linguistics

ABSTRACT
We investigate how people interact with Web search engine result pages using eye-tracking, to provide a detailed understanding of the patterns of user attention. Previous research has examined the visual attention devoted to the 10 organic search results, and we extend this by also examining how gaze is distributed across other components of contemporary search engines, such as ads and related searches. This provides insights about searcher’s interactions with the ―whole page‖, and not just individual components. In addition, we used clustering techniques to identify groups of individuals, with distinct gaze patterns. The groups varied in how exhaustively they examined the search results and in what regions of the search result page they paid most attention to (organic results vs. ads). These results further our understanding of how attention is distributed across increasingly complex search result pages, and how individuals exhibit distinct patterns of attention and interaction.

USA 2010 Tobii eye tracking X50 Studio Microsoft search engine results page attention interaction patterns HCI Usability

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
With only two to five slots of visual working memory (VWM), humans are able to quickly solve complex visual problems to near optimal solutions. To explain the paradox between tightly constrained VWM and impressively complex human visual problem-solving ability, we propose several principles for dynamic VWM allocation. In particular, we propose that complex visual information is represented in a temporal manner using only a few slots of VWM that include global and local visual chunks. We built a model of human traveling salesman problem solving based on these principles of VWM allocation and tested the model with eye-movement data. Exactly as the model predicted, human eye movements during traveling salesman problem solving have precise quantitative regularities with regard to both the general statistical pattern of attentional fixations and how they vary across individuals with different VWM capacities. Even though VWM capacity is very limited, eye movements dynamically allocate VWM resources to both local and global information, enabling attention to fine details without loss of the big picture.

USA 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 patterns visual working memory allocation attention fixations visual working memory cognitive

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
This report results from a contract tasking University of Rome 'La Sapienza' as follows: The Grantee investigated the relation between scan path (ocular activity) and mental workload on the basis of the consideration that high workload should produce fixations grouping (because the operator needs to focus on some specific feature of the interface/task) whereas low workload should be associated with regular patterns, indicating a regular check of the interface space. According to this hypothesis, indexes providing information about the dispersion of point patterns should indicate regularity in the case of low workload and grouping in the case of high workload. The results suggest that nearest neighbor index used here is sensitive for investigating the processes underlying shifts in the level of automation, and their consequences on operator performance. On the costs of switching between levels of automation (LOA), a simple visuo-motor task employed in this study suggests that switching LOA affected individual's performance because of the cost associated with engagement/disengagement process. These findings suggest that when individuals perform a task, their cognitive systems are set to a particular level and no costs are observed until the level (or rule) is changed. Under some circumstances the results suggest that no shift can even lead to a better performance.

Italy 2007 Cognitive Behavioral Tobii eye tracking scan path mental workload fixations patterns automation performance switching engagement

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
Displays combining both 2D and 3D views have been shown to support higher performance on certain visualization tasks. However, it is not clear how best to arrange a combination of 2D and 3D views spatially in a display. In this study, we analyzed the eyegaze strategies of participants using two arrangements of 2D and 3D views to estimate the relative position of objects in a 3D scene. Our results show that the 3D view was used significantly more often than individual 2D views in both displays, indicating the importance of the 3D view for successful task completion. However, viewing patterns were significantly different between the two displays: transitions through centrally-placed views were always more frequent, and users avoided saccades between views that were far apart. Although the change in viewing strategy did not result in significant performance differences, error analysis indicates that a 3D overview in the center may reduce the number of serious errors compared to a 3D overview placed off to the side.

Canada 2005 HCI Usability Tobii eye tracking 1750 2d 3d arrange task patterns error viewing

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Navigating using an endoscope in intra- or extra-lumenal surgical procedures can be difficult. One of the main reasons why this is difficult is operator disorientation. Operator disorientation can result from a number of factors including a lack of navigational cues, cognitive overload and restricted field of view of the endoscope. These result in decreased operator awareness of surroundings and the endoscope location in space. It is important to try to prevent operation disorientation in endoscopic procedures; however, it is equally important to efficiently and correctly re-orientate when disoriented to ensure safe surgery. It is likely that as endoscopic procedures are carried out extralumenally in greater spatial environments than the gastrointestinal tract, such as in natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES), disorientation will become more of a problem, placing greater emphasis on the abilities of the operator to re-orientate efficiently.
The hypothesis is that when humans are disoriented there exist discrete patterns in psychophysical visual behaviour used to re-orientate themselves in this simulated NOTES environment. These patterns are associated with increased performance and can be quantified or described. Should this be the case, it would seem possible that these strategies may be taught to re-orientate more effectively during minimally invasive surgery thereby critically minimising danger to the patient should the operator becomes disoriented.

UK 2009 Medical Tobii eye tracking strategies endoscope endoscopic procedure orientation patterns psychophysical visual behavior

in list: Medical research

Abstract
Thirty-one infant siblings of children with autism and 24 comparison infants were tested at 6 months of age during social interaction with a caregiver, using a modified Still Face paradigm conducted via a closed-circuit TV-video system. In the Still Face paradigm, the mother interacts with the infant, then freezes and displays a neutral, expressionless face, then resumes interaction. Eye tracking data on infant visual fixation patterns were recorded during the three episodes of the experiment. Using a hierarchical cluster analysis, we identified a subgroup of infants demonstrating diminished gaze to the mother's eyes relative to her mouth during the Still Face episode. Ten out of the 11 infants in this subgroup had an older sibling with autism.

Development Autism Siblings Still Face paradigm Visual fixation patterns Eye-Mouth Index (EMI) perception High-risk infants eye tracking USA 2007 Tobii ET-17

in list: Developmental Research

Abstract
This study examined the influence of cognitive styles on navigation patterns in hypertext environment. 20 undergraduate students from the Foreign Language Department were pre-tested on their cognitive styles, computer use and ability and prior knowledge about content presented in hypertext environment. All participants completed the Group-Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), Internet Influence and prior knowledge tests. Then they were asked to complete 6 tasks and navigate on a hypertext material on the planet Neptune. While they were reading the material, their eye movements were recorded by on eye-tracker device. The results were analyzed by measuring the fixation duration and eye-gaze points of the participants with regard to visited, revisited page numbers and navigation complexity. At the end of the study a recall performance test was applied. Results showed that cognitive style has no effect on recall performance, and navigational pattern while eye-fixation number on relevant information has significant effect on retention.

Linguistics eye tracking cognition navigation patterns hypertext recall Performance Turkey 2008 Tobii

in list: Linguistics

Abstract
In the absence of explicit queries, an alternative is to try to infer users' interests from implicit feedback signals, such as clickstreams or eye tracking. The interests, formulated as an implicit query, can then be used in further searches. We formulate this task as a probabilistic model, which can be interpreted as a kind of transfer or meta-learning. The probabilistic model is demonstrated to outperform an earlier kernel-based method in a small-scale information retrieval task.

HCI Algorithms Design Performance Theory gaze patterns learning queries eye tracking Finland 2008 Tobii 1750

in list: HCI & Usability , Eye Control

Abstract
Users’ psychological and physiological differences
have been sought by researchers. Cognitive style –one
of these differences- is related to a person’s approach
of getting, organizing, and processing information. It is
indicated in the literature that cognitive style has the
potential to affect the users’ interaction patterns in
computer-based interfaces. This study was conducted
to reveal the interaction patterns of users with different
cognitive styles by using eye-tracking method. Results
indicated that users’ fixation durations and places
might vary among different cognitive style groups, but
no statistically significant difference was found.

HCI cognitive Styles students Interaction patterns Instructional websites eye tracking Turkey 2006 Tobii

in list: HCI & Usability

Abstract
In biology education a crucial skill that needs to be acquired is classifying natural objects according to complex and dynamic visual information. However, due to the absence of suitable instructional material these skills are trained with static pictures instead of dynamic visualizations. A basis for developing such appropriate dynamic instructional material is the comprehension of the underlying processes of novices and experts. Therefore, this study analyzes the cognitive processes underlying a classification task in different expertise levels. This was done by comparing eye movements and verbal data of fourteen novices and seven experts obtained during their classification of fish locomotion patterns. Results show that experts performed faster and more accurately compared to novices due to their use of knowledge-based shortcuts. Implications of these findings for instructional design are discussed.

Fish locomotion Behavior patterns classifying natural objects eye tracking Germany 2008 Tobii 1750

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

Abstract
This paper reports on the scan patterns of users browsing a 2-column and 3-column web portal page. Consistent scanning patterns for each of the 2-column and 3-column web portal pages were found. Users typically fixated the portal channel in the upper left of the 2-column layout and in the top, center channel of the 3-column page. Implications including the likelihood and efficiency of portal users finding information on portal pages are discussed.

HCI Eye Tracking Patterns Web Portal Browsing USA 2008 Tobii

in list: HCI & Usability