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ABSTRACT
Situated public displays and interactive surfaces are becoming
ubiquitous in our daily lives. Issues arise with these
devices when attempting to interact over a distance or with
content that is physically out of reach. In this paper we outline
three techniques that combine gaze with manual handcontrolled
input to move objects. We demonstrate and discuss
how these techniques could be applied to two scenarios
involving, (1) a multi-touch surface and (2) a public display
and a mobile device.
in list: Eye Control
Eye-based human-computer interaction (HCI) goes back at least to the early 1990s. Controlling a computer using the eyes traditionally meant extracting information from the gaze—that is, what a person was looking at. In an early work, Robert Jacob investigated gaze as an input modality for desktop computing.1 He discussed some of the human factors and technical aspects of performing common tasks such as pointing, moving screen objects, and menu selection. Since then, eye-based HCI has matured considerably. Today, eye tracking is used successfully as a measurement technique not only in the laboratory but also in commercial applications, such as marketing research and automotive usability studies.
in list: Eye Tracking Technology, HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we firstly present what is
Interactive Evolutionary Computation (IEC)
and rapidly how we have combined this
artificial intelligence technique with an eyetracker
for visual optimization. Next, in order
to correctly parameterize our application, we
present results from applying data mining
techniques on gaze information coming from
experiments conducted on about 80 human
individuals.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
Eye-movements represent a great interest in studying the specificity of the reading difficulties that individuals with developmental dyslexia have. In the present study dyslexic children were pair-matched with control children in a sentence reading task. The children read sentences in Bulgarian – a Cyrillic alphabet language with regular orthography. Target nouns with controlled frequency and length were embedded in the sentences. Eye movements
revealed highly significant group differences in the gaze time and the total fixation times, word frequency and word length effects as well as interaction for both frequency and length with the group factor. These results, especially the frequency effect found in the dyslexic children, are discussed in the context of previous studies.
in list: Developmental Research
ABSTRACT
An eye tracker makes it possible to record the gaze point of a person looking at for example a computer monitor. Modern techniques are very flexible and allow the user to behave naturally without the need of cumbersome equipment such as special contact lenses or electrical probes. This is valuable in psychological research, marketing research and Human Computer Interaction. Eye trackers also give people who are severely paralyzed and unable to type and speak means to communicate using their eyes.
Measurement noise makes the use of digital filters necessary. An example is an eye-controlled cursor for a desktop environment such as Windows. The cursor has to be stable enough to allow the user to select folders, icons or other items of interest. While this type of application requires a fast real-time filter, others are less sensitive to processing time but demand an even higher level of accuracy. This work explores three areas of eye tracking filtration and aims at enhancing the performance of the filters used in the eye tracking systems built by Tobii Technology, Sweden. First, a post-processing algorithm to find fixations in raw gaze data is detailed. Second, modifications to an existing reading detection algorithm are described to make it more robust to natural irregularities in reading patterns. Third, a real-time filter for an eye-controlled cursor to be used in a desktop environment is designed using a low-pass filter in parallel with a change detector.
The fixation filter produced fewer false fixations and was also able to detect fixations lying spatially closer together than the previously used filter. The reading detection algorithm was shown to be robust to natural irregularities in reading such as revisits to previously read text or skipped paragraphs. The eye-cursor filter proved to respond quicker than the previously used moving average filter while maintaining a high level of noise attenuation.
in list: Eye Tracking Technology
ABSTRACT
Four-, 6-, and 11-month old infants were presented with movies in which two adult actors conversed about everyday events, either by facing each other or looking in opposite directions. Infants from 6 months of age made more gaze shifts between the actors, in accordance with the flow of conversation, when the actors were facing each other. A second experiment demonstrated that gaze following alone did not cause this difference. Instead the results are consistent with a social cognitive interpretation, suggesting that infants perceive the difference between face-to-face and back-to-back conversations and that they prefer to attend to a typical pattern of social interaction from 6 months of age.
in list: Developmental Research
ABSTRACT
Infants turn their own eyes to others’ focus of attention. This action is called joint visual attention. It is known that the action develops from reflexive to intentional. In the early developmental process, it is pointed out that infants become intentional agents. We constructed a computational model to study intentional agency. The computational model has two main mechanisms. One is to form a memory of relationships between directions of others’ gaze and objects gazed at. The other is to associate the direction of others’ gaze with a target object. We suppose that the mechanisms realize an immature intentional agency. To demonstrate the mechanisms, we develop a robot to implement the computational model, and construct an experimental environment for human-robot interaction. We first test the experimental environment with the robot which produces only reflexive action. As a result, a participant in the test showed actions to explore the gaze object of the robot simply because the robot turned to face a different area from the person’s gaze. From the result we noticed a problem. When the robot gazes at a different object than the one the person looked at, we cannot distinguish between two possible causes. One is a mistaken reading of the person’s gaze. The other is an association with a different target object from the person’s gaze. We propose a solution to solve the problem by using a measurement device for the focus of the person’s gaze, and discuss a working hypothesis to demonstrate the function of our constructed mechanisms.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
Eye movement recordings produce large quantities of spatio-temporal data, and are more and more frequently used as an aid to gain further insight into human thinking in usability studies in GIScience domain among others. After reviewing some common visualization methods for eye movement data, the limitations of these methods are discussed. This paper proposes an approach that enables the use of the Space-Time-Cube (STC) for representation of eye movement recordings. Via interactive functions in the STC, spatio-temporal patterns in eye movement data could be analyzed. A case study is presented according to proposed solutions for eye movement data analysis. Finally, the advantages and limitations of using the STC to visually analyze eye movement recordings are summarized and discussed.
in list: General Eye Tracking
ABSTRACT
Eye tracking is a fascinating technology that is starting to be used for evaluation of and for interacting in virtual environments. Especially digital games can benefit from an integrated (i.e., evaluation and interaction) approach, harnessing eye tracking technology for analysis and interaction. Such benefits include faster development of innovative games which can be automatically evaluated in an iterative fashion. For this purpose, we present a framework that enables rapid game development and gameplay analysis within an experimental research environment. The framework presented here is extensible for different kinds of logging (e.g., psychophysiological and in-game behavioral data) and facilitates studies using eye-tracking technology in digital entertainment environments. An experimental study using gaze-only interaction in a digital game is also presented and highlights the framework’s capacity to create and evaluate novel entertainment interfaces.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we describe two series of experiments that examine audiovisual face-to-face interaction between naive human viewers and either a human interlocutor or a virtual conversational agent. The main objective is to analyze the interplay between speech activity and mutual gaze patterns during mediated face-to-face interactions. We first quantify the impact of deictic gaze patterns of our agent. We further aim at refining our experimental knowledge on mutual gaze patterns during human face-to-face interaction by using new technological devices such as non-invasive eye trackers and pinhole cameras, and at quantifying the impact of a selection of cognitive states and communicative functions on recorded gaze patterns.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
Social adaptation requires specific cognitive and emotional competences. Individuals with high-functioning autism or with Asperger syndrome cannot understand or engage in social situations despite preserved intellectual abilities. Recently, it has been suggested that oxytocin, a hormone known to promote mother-infant bonds, may be implicated in the social deficit of autism. We investigated the behavioral effects of oxytocin in 13 subjects with autism. In a simulated ball game where participants interacted with fictitious partners, we found that after oxytocin inhalation, patients exhibited stronger interactions with the most socially cooperative partner and reported enhanced feelings of trust and preference. Also, during free viewing of pictures of faces, oxytocin selectively increased patients’ gazing time on the socially informative region of the face, namely the eyes. Thus, under oxytocin, patients respond more strongly to others and exhibit more appropriate social behavior and affect, suggesting a therapeutic potential of oxytocin through its action on a core dimension of autism.
in list: Neuropsychology
ABSTRACT
To enable people with motor impairments to use gaze control to play online games and take part in virtual communities, new interaction techniques are needed that overcome the limitations of dwell clicking on icons in the games interface. We have investigated gaze gestures as a means of achieving this. We report the results of an experiment with 24 participants that examined performance differences between different gestures. We were able to predict the effect on performance of the numbers of legs in the gesture and the primary direction of eye movement in a gesture. We also report the outcomes of user trials in which 12 experienced gamers used the gaze gesture interface to play World of Warcraft. All participants were able to move around and engage other characters in fighting episodes successfully. Gestures were good for issuing specific commands such as spell casting, and less good for continuous control of movement compared with other gaze interaction techniques we have developed.
in list: Eye Control
ABSTRACT
A key problem in information retrieval is inferring the searcher's interest in the results, which can be used for implicit feedback, query suggestion, and result ranking and summarization. One important indicator of searcher interest is gaze position - that is, the results or the terms in a result listing where a searcher concentrates her attention. Capturing this information normally requires eye tracking equipment, which until now has limited the use of gaze-based feedback to the laboratory. While previous research has reported a correlation between mouse movement and gaze position, we are not aware of previous work on automatically inferring searcher's gaze position from mouse movement or similar interface interactions. In this paper, we report the first results on automatically inferring whether the searcher's gaze position is coordinated with the mouse position - a crucial step towards predicting the searcher gaze position from the computer mouse movements.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
Previous studies have shown that a variety of animals including humans are sensitive to social cues from others and shift their attention to the same objects attended to by others. However, little is known about how animals process conspecifics' and another species' actions, although primates recognize conspecific faces better than those of another species. In this study, using unrestrained eye-tracking techniques, we first demonstrated that conspecific social cues modulated looking behaviours of chimpanzees more than human cues, whereas human observers were equally sensitive to both species. Additionally, first pass gaze duration at the face indicates that chimpanzees looked at the chimpanzees' face longer than the human face, suggesting that chimpanzees might extract more referential information from a conspecific face. These results also imply that a unique ability for extracting referential information from a variety of social objects has emerged during human evolution.
in list: Animal behaviour
ABSTRACT
This paper examines gaze gestures and their applicability as a generic selection method for gaze-only controlled interfaces. The method explored here is the Single Gaze Gesture (SGG), i.e. gestures consisting of a single point-to-point eye movement. Horizontal and vertical, long and short SGGs were evaluated on two eye tracking devices (Tobii/QuickGlance (QG)). The main findings show that there is a significant difference in selection times between long and short SGGs, between vertical and horizontal selections, as well as between the different tracking systems.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
Previous research shows that text entry by gaze using dwell time is slow, about 5-10 words per minute (wpm). These results are based on experiments with novices using a constant dwell time, typically between 450 and 1000 ms. We conducted a longitudinal study to find out how fast novices learn to type by gaze using an adjustable dwell time. Our results show that the text entry rate increased from 6.9 wpm in the first session to 19.9 wpm in the tenth session. Correspondingly, the dwell time decreased from an average of 876 ms to 282 ms, and the error rates decreased from 1.28% to .36%. The achieved typing speed of nearly 20 wpm is comparable with the result of 17.3 wpm achieved in an earlier, similar study with Dasher.
in list: HCI & Usability
SUMMARY
Humans are extremely sensitive to ostensive signals, like eye contact or having their name called, that indicate someone's communicative intention toward them [1,2,3]. Infants also pay attention to these signals [4,5,6], but it is unknown whether they appreciate their significance in the initiation of communicative acts. In two experiments, we employed video presentation of an actor turning toward one of two objects and recorded infants' gaze-following behavior [7,8,9,10,11,12,13] with eye-tracking techniques [11,12]. We found that 6-month-old infants followed the adult's gaze (a potential communicative-referential signal) toward an object only when such an act is preceded by ostensive cues such as direct gaze (experiment 1) and infant-directed speech (experiment 2). Such a link between the presence of ostensive signals and gaze following suggests that this behavior serves a functional role in assisting infants to effectively respond to referential communication directed to them. Whereas gaze following in many nonhuman species supports social information gathering [14,15,16,17,18], in humans it initially appears to reflect the expectation of a more active, communicative role from the information source.
in list: Developmental Research
ABSTRACT
This paper reports on a study which compared two tools for tracking the focus of visual attention - a remote eye tracker and the Restricted Focus Viewer (RFV). The RFV tool blurs the stimuli in order to simulate human vision; the user controls the portion of the screen which is in focus with a computer mouse. Both tools were used by eighteen participants debugging three Java programs for ten minutes each. The results in terms of debugging accuracy and debugging behavior were compared using the restricting view condition of the RFV and a measuring tool as factors.
The results show that while the debugging performance and the distribution of the time spent on areas of interest (AOI) are not influenced by the restricting view condition, the dynamics of programming behavior is different. The number of switches between the AOIs as measured by the RFV significantly differed from those measured by the eye tracker. Also the number of switches under the restricted and unrestricted RFV condition was significantly different. We maintain that the RFV must be used with caution to measure the switches of visual attention.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
This paper describes one test from a larger eye tracking and design evaluation research aiming at developing methods for studying the perception of design products. The test focuses on searching for a connection between gaze, product attitude and preference when comparing the products in pairs and when selecting a favorite from the available products. The role of appearance and apparent usability in product attitude and preference are also explored.
The test results suggest that a correlation between gaze and product attitude can be found with certain indicators. Product preference can also be seen quite clearly in the visualized gaze data. Some distinct differences were found between the groups of designers and other test persons in the emphasis of appearance and apparent usability as variables influencing on both the product attitude and preference.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
In the context of synthetic generation and decoding of linguistic information, not only the audible component but also the visual component of speech conveys valuable information. We address gaze as an important modality to enhance speech and to convey additional information. Gaze is an important deictic gesture as well as it plays various roles in the organization of dialogue and social interaction.\nIn a first experiment, we investigated how the gaze of a talking head can be used as a deictic gesture in an on-screen search and retrieval task. We found that such gestures are appropriate to reduce processing time as well as cognitive load. Multimodal gestures incorporating speech in a coherent way showed to be more efficient than only visual gestures.\nIn a second experiment, we investigated the relations between the gaze of a target subject and different elements of conversational interaction. We defined different stages in the dialogic exchange of information and found that these are related to the variations in the measured gaze behavior. Based on the observed characteristics we propose a model to control the gaze of an embodied conversational agent in close dyadic interaction.
in list: HCI & Usability
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