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Eye-based human-computer interaction (HCI) goes back at least to the early 1990s. Controlling a computer using the eyes traditionally meant extracting information from the gaze—that is, what a person was looking at. In an early work, Robert Jacob investigated gaze as an input modality for desktop computing.1 He discussed some of the human factors and technical aspects of performing common tasks such as pointing, moving screen objects, and menu selection. Since then, eye-based HCI has matured considerably. Today, eye tracking is used successfully as a measurement technique not only in the laboratory but also in commercial applications, such as marketing research and automotive usability studies.

Germany 2010 Bulling Mobile HCI interaction gaze based eye tracking development Tobii Glasses

in list: Eye Tracking Technology, HCI & Usability

A conversation is made up of visual and auditory signals in a complex flow of events. What is the relative importance of these components for young children's ability to maintain attention on a conversation? In the present set of experiments the visual and auditory signals were disentangled in four filmed events. The visual events were either accompanied by the speech sounds of the conversation or by matched motor sounds and the auditory events by either the natural visual turn taking of the conversation or a matched turn taking of toy trucks. A cornea-reflection technique was used to record the gaze-pattern of subjects while they were looking at the films. Three age groups of typically developing children were studied; 6-month-olds, 1-year-olds and 3-year-olds. The results show that the children are more attracted by the social component of the conversation independent of the kind of sound used. Older children find spoken language more interesting than motor sound. Children look longer at the speaking agent when humans maintain the conversation. The study revealed that children are more attracted to the mouth than to the eyes area. The ability to make more predictive gaze shifts develops gradually over age.

Sweden Norway 2011 developmental eye tracking tobii 1750 120 development perception conversation infant pubmed speaking children social

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
Motion parallax (MP) is a kinetic, monocular cue to depth that relies on both retinal image motion and a pursuit eye movement signal. With MP, depth sign is based on the direction of the smooth pursuit eye movement signal: Retinal motion in the same direction as the pursuit signal is perceived nearer than fixation. Retinal motion in the opposite direction is perceived farther away than fixation (M. Nawrot & Joyce, 2006). In previous research to understand the development of MP in infants we (E. Nawrot, Mayo, & M. Nawrot, 2009) used an infant control habituation procedure with an MP stimulus to determine the average age of dishabituation to a depth-reversed test stimulus. Dishabituation to the change in depth sign is evidence for depth discrimination from MP. Now, our goal is to determine when the developing smooth pursuit system has sufficiently matured in infancy and then directly measure pursuit eye movements in relation to a motion parallax task. We presented 12-20 week-old infants with both a depth-from-MP task and a visual tracking task designed to elicit smooth pursuit (SP). The MP stimulus and procedure is identical to previous research (E. Nawrot, Mayo, & M. Nawrot, 2009). Tracking is elicited with a schematic “happy-face” that translates at 10 deg/sec. Eye movements are recorded using a Tobii systems X120 Eye Tracker. We expect to find that SP gain (eye velocity/target velocity) increases across this age range and pursuit maturity will correlate with the onset of sensitivity to MP. Data collected from 16 infants so far supports the hypothesis that depth from MP requires maturation of SP. In general, younger infants demonstrate more saccadic and lower gain eye movements, without MP, while older infants demonstrate more smooth pursuit tracking of the stimulus and MP.

2010 USA Tobii eye tracking X120 motion parallax smooth pursuit age development velocity vision

in list: Ophthalmology & Vision science

ABSTRACT
The authors explored different aspects of encoding strategy use in primary school children by including (a) an encoding strategy task in which children's encoding strategy use was recorded through a remote eye-tracking device and, later, free recall and recognition for target items was assessed; and (b) tasks measuring resistance to interference (flanker task) and inhibition of attention to task-irrelevant stimuli (distractibility). Results revealed that the ability to inhibit distraction and resist interference undergoes developmental changes between the ages of 7–10 years. At the same time, children's capability to strategically focus on task-relevant aspects also continues to improve in primary school years. Although there were substantial relationships between encoding strategies and later recognition, encoding strategies appeared to be unrelated to basic aspects of attentional control.

Switzerland 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 attention control development encoding strategy memory distraction developmental

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
This paper reports on the initial results of an eye-tracking research of collaborative program development, more particularly, in the case of pair programming. An eight-weeks long empirical study was conducted in industrial-like settings. The study focuses on investigating the interplay between pair-programming productivity and recorded developers' eye movements. We also evaluate a previously developed collaborative eye-tracking framework, which is capable of tracking two participants simultaneously, and we discuss the issues related to it. We present a descriptive analysis of shared visual attention during pair programming by combining data from eye-tracking and verbal protocols, and propose new eye tracking metrics. Finally, we outline the implications of the findings.

Finland 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 programming productivity tandem pair Collaborative program development HCI Usability

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Conducting psychophysiological experiments that measure how players experience digital games not only allows investigating the effects digital games have on players, it also gives game developers a tool to validate game design. In order to rapidly develop digital games that can be used as stimuli in psychophysiological experiments, a coherent and flexible development environment is required. A development environment that allows researchers to design their experiments, build the stimulus game and easily integrate all required data acquisition functionality into it.
Throughout this thesis, such an environment for rapid development of stimulus games that employ logging of psychophysiological data will be designed and implemented. Methods for gathering player related data in digital games and related fields of application will be compared, in order to establish a theoretical foundation for the conception of a logging framework. Based on this, game engines, development suites and frameworks will be reviewed, leading to the selection of the XNA framework and the Torque X Engine as suitable technologies for the implementation of this logging framework.
The logging framework will be implemented as a set of Torque X components and an example game will be developed in order to demonstrate the application of the framework and the different logging components. Finally, the choice of C#, XNA and the Torque X Engine for development, the impact of the logging framework in accelerating the development of stimulus games, as well as prospects for the future development of the logging framework will\nbe discussed.

Sweden 2008 HCI Usability Tobii eye tracking psychophyiological games gaming experience design development data log framework

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Build-a-Table is a free online tool that allows users to find, download and customize tables of data from the Census of Government Employment for 1997, 2002, and 2007. In January 2009, the Statistical Research Division (SRD) evaluated the usability of the Build-a-Table Web site. The testing evaluated the success and satisfaction of nine participants with the site developed by the Public Employment and Payroll Build-a-Table team from the Governments (GOVS) Division. Participants attempted to complete eight pre-determined tasks, developed specifically for this study, on the Web site. Usability testing revealed several usability problems including unclear instructions, lack of clarity in how many items could be chosen to build a table, and unclear functionality of the Main button. Overall, participants were satisfied with the Web site, and pre-determined satisfaction and efficiency goals were met. This report provides a complete summary of the findings of this usability evaluation. Recommendations are provided to improve the usability of the Build-a-Table Web site.

USA 2009 HCI Usability Tobii eye tracking 1750 census data evaluation development site website results efficiency

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine typically developing infants' integration of audio-visual sensory information as a fundamental process involved in early word learning. One hundred sixty pre-linguistic children were randomly assigned to watch one of four counterbalanced versions of audio-visual video sequences. The infants' eye-movements were recorded and their looking behavior was analyzed throughout three repetitions of exposure-test-phases. The results indicate that the infants were able to learn covariance between shapes and colors of arbitrary geometrical objects and to them corresponding nonsense words. Implications of audio-visual integration in infants and in non-human animals for modeling within speech recognition systems, neural networks and robotics are discussed.

2006 Sweden Tobii 1750 eye tracking ClearView linguistics Development infant audiovisual sensory learning integration recognition speech

in list: Linguistics

Abstract
Thirty-one infant siblings of children with autism and 24 comparison infants were tested at 6 months of age during social interaction with a caregiver, using a modified Still Face paradigm conducted via a closed-circuit TV-video system. In the Still Face paradigm, the mother interacts with the infant, then freezes and displays a neutral, expressionless face, then resumes interaction. Eye tracking data on infant visual fixation patterns were recorded during the three episodes of the experiment. Using a hierarchical cluster analysis, we identified a subgroup of infants demonstrating diminished gaze to the mother's eyes relative to her mouth during the Still Face episode. Ten out of the 11 infants in this subgroup had an older sibling with autism.

Development Autism Siblings Still Face paradigm Visual fixation patterns Eye-Mouth Index (EMI) perception High-risk infants eye tracking USA 2007 Tobii ET-17

in list: Developmental Research

Abstract
One of the core issues in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is problematic social interaction, which for an important part is reflected by poor processing of emotional information. Typically, adults show specific viewing patterns while scanning positive and negative emotional expressions in faces. In this study, we investigated whether the same pattern is present in a group of 3- to 6-year-old children with ASD and a 5-year-old control group. We found that although the group with ASD looked less at feature areas of the face (eye, mouth, nose) than the control group, both the children with ASD and the normally developing children displayed differential scanning patterns for faces displaying positive and negative emotions. Specifically, we found increased scanning of the eye region when looking at faces displaying negative emotions. This study shows that, although young children with ASD exhibit abnormal face scanning patterns, they do exhibit differential viewing strategies while scanning positive and negative facial expressions.

development children Autism Spectrum ASD Pervasive developmental disorder Face perception Emotion eye tracking Sweden 2008 Tobii 1750

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
Objective: Damage to the amygdala produces deficits in the ability to recognize fear due to attentional neglect of other people`s eyes. Interestingly, children with high psychopathic traits also show problems recognizing fear; however, the reasons for this are not known. This study tested whether psychopathic traits are associated with reduced attention to the eye region of other people`s faces.
Method: Adolescent males (N = 100; age mean 12.4 years, SD 2.2) were stratified by psychopathic traits and assessed using a Tobii eye tracker to measure primacy, number, and duration of fixations to the eye and mouth regions of emotional faces presented via the UNSW Facial Emotion Task.
Results: High psychopathic traits predicted poor fear recognition (1.21 versus 1.35; p < .05) and lower number (1.85 versus 2.51; p < .001) and duration (375 versus 620 ms; p < .001) of eye fixations, and fewer first foci to the eye region (1.01 versus 2.01; p < .001). There were no differences in gaze indices to the mouth region. All indices of gaze to the eye region correlated positively with accurate recognition of fear for the high psychopathy group, especially the number of times that subjects looked at the eyes first (r = .50; p < .01).
Conclusions: Attention to other people`s eyes is reduced in young people with high psychopathic traits, thus accounting for their problems with fear recognition, and is consistent with amygdala dysfunction failing to promote attention to emotional salience in the environment.

Infant psychopathy emotion recognition eye tracking gaze child development Australia 2008 Tobii 1750

in list: Developmental Research

Abstract
While existing eye detection and tracking algorithms can work reasonably well in a controlled environment, they tend to perform poorly under real world imaging conditions where the lighting produces shadows and the person’s eyes can be occluded by e.g. glasses or makeup. As a result, pixel clusters associated with the eyes tend to be grouped together with background-features. This problem occurs both for eye detection and eye tracking. Problems that especially plague eye tracking include head movement, eye blinking and light changes, all of which can cause the eyes to suddenly disappear. The usual approach in such cases is to abandon the tracking routine and re-initialize eye detection. Of course this may be a difficult process due to missed data problem. Accordingly, what is needed is an efficient method of reliably tracking a person’s eyes between successively produced video image frames, even in situations where the person’s head turns, the eyes momentarily close and/or the lighting conditions are variable. The present paper is directed to an efficient and reliable method of tracking a human eye between successively produced infrared interlaced image frames where the lighting conditions are challenging. It proposes a log likelihood-ratio function of foreground and background models in a particle filter-based eye tracking framework. It fuses key information from even, odd infrared fields (dark and bright-pupil) and their corresponding subtractive image into one single observation model. Experimental validations show good performance of the proposed eye tracker in challenging conditions that include moderate head motion and significant local and global lighting changes. The paper presents also an eye detector that relies on physiological infrared eye responses and a modified version of a cascaded classifier.

Eye Tracking development algorithms Denmark 2007 Tobii

in list: Eye Tracking Technology

ABSTRACT
Previous looking time studies have shown that infants use the heads of cat and dog images to form category representations for these animal classes. The present research used an eye-tracking procedure to determine the time course of attention to the head and whether it reflects a preexisting bias or online learning. Six- to 7-month-olds were familiarized with cats or dogs in upright or inverted orientations and then tested with a novel cat and novel dog in the same orientation. In the upright orientation, infants fixated head over body throughout familiarization; with inversion, no head preference was observed. These findings suggest that infant reliance on the head to categorize cats versus dogs results from a bias that pushes attention to the head.

Infant Development eye tracking Visual Attention USA 2009 Tobii X50

in list: Developmental Research

Abstract
Here we report evidence from a new eye-tracking measure of relational memory that suggests that 9-month-old infants can encode memories in terms of the relations among items, a function putatively subserved by the hippocampus. Infants learned about the association between faces that were superimposed on unique scenic backgrounds. During test trials, infants were shown three faces presented on a familiar scene. All three faces were equally familiar; however, one had been presented with the test background earlier. Visual behavior was recorded continuously using a TOBII eye tracker. Infants looked preferentially at the face that matched the test background very early in the trial; however, the time course of this preferential looking effect varied as a function of delay. These results suggest that by 9 months of age infants can form memories that represent the relations among items and maintain them over short delays."

Infant Development memory eye tracking 2009 Tobii

in list: Developmental Research