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ABSTRACT
This study investigates dynamic information acquisition strategies during decision making. The authors conduct an eye-tracking experiment to trace consumers‘ moment-to-moment decision process on comparison websites. A new hierarchical Hidden Markov Model is developed to analyze the eye-movement data. It consists of three connected hierarchical layers: a lower layer that describes the eye-movements, a middle layer that captures product-based and attribute-based information acquisition strategies, and an upper layer that enables us to analyze the time course of switching between these information acquisition strategies. In the experiment on the effects of presentation formats of comparison websites for laptop computers, the authors quantify the usage of information acquisition strategies, identify switching patterns, and investigate the impact that strategy switching has on evaluation of the choice process. Consumers switch frequently between information acquisition strategies: around 50 to 60 times for the average decision. The contiguity of presented information and the row-column presentation format influence information strategy usage and product choice. These findings support our recommendations for the rapidly growing comparison website industry.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
Many tasks require attention switching. For example, searching for information on one sheet of paper and then entering this information onto another one. With paper we see that people use fingers or objects as placeholders. Using these simple aids, the process of switching attention between displays can be simplified and speeded up. With large or multiple visual displays we have many tasks where both attention areas are on the screen and where using a finger as a placeholder is not suitable. One way users deal with this is to use the mouse and highlight their current focus. However, this also has its limitations -- in particular in environments where there is no pointing device. Our approach is to utilize the user's gaze position to provide a visual placeholder. The last area where a user fixated on the screen (before moving their attention away) is highlighted; we call this visual reminder a Gazemark. Gazemarks ease orientation and the resumption of the interrupted task when coming back to this display. In this paper we report on a study where the effectiveness of using Gazemarks was investigated, in particular we show how they can ease attention switching. Our results show faster completion times for a resumed simple visual search task when using this technique. The paper analyzes relevant parameters for the implementation of Gazemarks and discusses some further application areas for this approach.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the visual information that children and adults consider while switching or maintaining object-matching rules. Eye movements of 5- and 6-year-old children and adults were collected with two versions of the Advanced Dimensional Change Card Sort, which requires switching between shape- and color-matching rules. In addition to a traditional integrated version with bidimensional objects (e.g., a blue bear), participants were tested on a dissociated version with pairs of unidimensional objects as stimuli (e.g., a noncolored bear beside a blue patch) so that fixations on the relevant and irrelevant dimensions of the stimuli could be distinguished. The fixation times were differentially distributed depending on whether children had to switch or maintain matching rules. Trial type differences in fixation times were primarily observed for the cues and the relevant and irrelevant dimensions of the stimuli, whereas responses options were seldom fixated even by the youngest children.
In addition, the shape modality of the stimulus was more fixated than the color modality whether or not
shape was relevant. Finally, the fixation patterns were modulated by age. These results suggest that
switch costs are more related to selection of the relevant dimension on the stimulus than to response
selection and point to age-related differences in strategies underlying flexible behavior.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
The Restricted Focus Viewer (RFV) relates a small part of an otherwise blurred display to the focus of visual attention. A user controls which part of the screen is in focus by using a computer mouse. The RFV tool records these movements. Recently, some studies used the RFV to investigate the cognitive behavior of users and some others have even enhanced the tool for research of usability issues.We report on an eye-tracking study where the effects of RFV's display blurring on the visual attention allocation of 18 novice and expert programmers were investigated. We replicated a previous RFV-based study and analyzed attention switching and fixation durations reported by an eye tracker. Our results indicate that the blurring interferes with the strategies possessed by experts and has an effect on fixation duration: however, we found that debugging performance was preserved. We discuss possible reasons and implications.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
This report results from a contract tasking University of Rome 'La Sapienza' as follows: The Grantee investigated the relation between scan path (ocular activity) and mental workload on the basis of the consideration that high workload should produce fixations grouping (because the operator needs to focus on some specific feature of the interface/task) whereas low workload should be associated with regular patterns, indicating a regular check of the interface space. According to this hypothesis, indexes providing information about the dispersion of point patterns should indicate regularity in the case of low workload and grouping in the case of high workload. The results suggest that nearest neighbor index used here is sensitive for investigating the processes underlying shifts in the level of automation, and their consequences on operator performance. On the costs of switching between levels of automation (LOA), a simple visuo-motor task employed in this study suggests that switching LOA affected individual's performance because of the cost associated with engagement/disengagement process. These findings suggest that when individuals perform a task, their cognitive systems are set to a particular level and no costs are observed until the level (or rule) is changed. Under some circumstances the results suggest that no shift can even lead to a better performance.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
This paper describes a study of Java program debugging using a multiple window software debugging environment (SDE). In this study we have replicated an earlier study by Romero et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2003), but with the difference of using both the Restricted Focus Viewer and the eye tracking equipment to track the visual attention of the subjects. The study involved ten subjects debugging short Java programs using the SDE. The SDE included three different representations of the Java programs, those of the program source code, a visualization of the program, and its output concurrently in three separate panels in SDE. We used the Restricted Focus Viewer (RFV) and a remote eye tracker to collect the visual attention of the subjects. A with-in subject design, similar to Romero et al., employing both RFV/no-RVF task conditions was used.
The overall results of the time distributions over three different representations of the programs agree with the study of Romero et al. But the results of visual attention switching raise some questions to be considered in later studies.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
The eyes are a rich source of information for gathering context in our everyday lives. Using eye-gaze information as a form of input can enable a computer system to gain more contextual information about the user's task, which in turn can be leveraged to design interfaces which are more intuitive and intelligent. With the increasing accuracy and decreasing cost of eye gaze tracking systems it will soon be practical for able-bodied users to use gaze as a form of input in addition to keyboard and mouse. Our research explores how gaze information can be effectively used as an augmented input in addition to traditional input devices. We present several novel prototypes that explore the use of gaze as an augmented input to perform everyday computing tasks. In particular we explore the use of gaze for pointing and selection, scrolling, application switching and password entry. We present the results of user experiments which compare the gaze-augmented interaction techniques with traditional mechanisms and show that the resulting interaction is either comparable to or an improvement over existing input methods. These results show that it is indeed possible to devise novel interaction techniques that use gaze as a form of input while minimizing false activations and without overloading the visual channel. We also discuss some of the problems and challenges of using gaze information as a form of input and propose solutions which, as discovered over the course of the research, can be used to mitigate these issues.
in list: HCI & Usability
ABSTRACT
When viewing ambiguous figures, individuals can exert selective attentional control over their perceptual reversibility behaviour (e.g., Strüber & Stadler, 1999). In the current study, we replicated this finding but we also found that ambiguous figures containing faces are processed quite differently from those containing objects. Furthermore, inverting an ambiguous figure containing faces (i.e., Rubin's vase-face) resulted in an "inversion effect". These findings highlight the importance of considering how we attend to faces in addition to how we perceive and process faces. Describing the perceptual reversal patterns of individuals in the general population allowed us to draw comparisons to behaviours exhibited by individuals with Asperger Syndrome (AS). The group data suggested that these individuals were less affected by figure type or stimulus inversion. Examination of individual scores, moreover, revealed that the majority of participants with AS showed an atypical reversal pattern, particularly with ambiguous figures containing faces, and an atypical inversion effect. Together, our results show that ambiguous figures can be a very valuable tool for examining face processing mechanisms in the general population and other distinct groups of individuals, particularly those diagnosed with AS.
in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology
ABSTRACT
We present a technique for switching between active applications by using a combination of keyboard (or any other trigger) and eye gaze. In particular, our approach combines the use of a two-dimensional layout visualization for showing the user all open applications and the use of eye gaze tracking for selecting the desired window. Our
studies show that this combination of gaze and the visual representation of active tasks allows users to switch between applications quickly and naturally. Users strongly preferred this technique of switching between applications compared to other alternatives.
in list: HCI & Usability
The GUIDe (Gaze-enhanced User Interface Design) project in the HCI Group at Stanford University explores how gaze information can be effectively used as an augmented input in addition to keyboard and mouse. We present three practical applications of gaze as an augmented input for pointing and selection, application switching, and scrolling. Our gaze-based interaction techniques do not overload the visual channel and present a natural, universally-accessible and general purpose use of gaze information to facilitate interaction with everyday computing devices.
Abstract
The eyes are a rich source of information for gathering context in our everyday lives. A user’s gaze is postulated to be the best proxy for attention or intention. Using gaze information as a form of input can enable a computer system to gain more contextual information about the user’s task, which in turn can be leveraged to design interfaces which are more intuitive and intelligent. Eye gaze tracking as a form of input was primarily developed for users who are unable to make normal use of a keyboard and pointing device. However, with the increasing accuracy and decreasing cost of eye gaze tracking systems it will soon be practical for able-bodied users to use gaze as a form of input in addition to keyboard and mouse. This dissertation explores how gaze information can be effectively used as an augmented input in addition to traditional input devices.
The focus of this research is to augment rather than replace existing interaction techniques. Adding gaze information provides viable alternatives to traditional interaction techniques, which users may prefer to use depending upon their abilities, tasks and preferences. This dissertation presents a series of novel prototypes that explore the use of gaze as an augmented input to perform everyday computing tasks. In particular, it explores the use of gaze-based input for pointing and selection, scrolling and document navigation, application switching, password entry, zooming and other applications. It p
in list: HCI & Usability , Eye Control
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