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ABSTRACT
It is widely reported that individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) direct their attention in an atypical manner. When viewing complex scenes, typically developing individuals look at social aspects of scenes more rapidly than individuals with ASD. In the absence of a strong drive to extract social information, is something else capturing attention in these initial fixations, such as visually salient features? Twenty four high-functioning adolescents with ASD and 24 typically developing matched control participants viewed a series of indoor and outdoor scenes while their eye movements were tracked. Participants in both groups were more likely to fixate on salient regions in the first five fixations than later in viewing. Peak saliency at fixation occurred at fixation two for the typically developing participants but at fixation three for ASD participants. This difference was driven by typically developing participants looking at heads earlier than ASD participants – which are often visually salient. No differences between groups were observed for images in which the heads were not salient. We can therefore conclude that visual saliency impacts fixation location in a similar manner in individuals with ASD and those with typical development. It was found that social features in scenes (heads) captured attention much more than visually salient features, even in individuals with ASD.
Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T0D-51GRWMW-4&_user=10&_coverDate=11%2F17%2F2010&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1561350701&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9a7aeea41ec8d3d688a1476311bec9a9&searchtype=a

Canada 2010 Neuropsychology Tobii eye tracking 1750 autism spectrum disorder attention social visual salience

in list: Neuropsychology

ABSTRACT
In serial memory for spatial information, performance is impaired when distractors are interpolated between to-be-remembered (TBR) stimuli (Tremblay, Nicholls, Parmentier, & Jones, 2005). The so-called sandwich effect, combined with the use of eye tracking, served as a tool for examining the role of the oculomotor system in serial memory for spatial information. Participants had to recall the order in which sequences of TBR locations were presented. In some trials, to-be-ignored blue dots were presented after each TBR location. Our results show that response locations shift toward the location of the distractors, and this deviation is related to the eye movement deviation toward the distractor location. These results suggest that TBR and to-be-ignored locations are encoded onto a common map that could lie within the oculomotor system. Interference in memory for spatial information is interpreted in light of a model of oculomotor behavior (Godijn & Theeuwes, 2002b).

Canada 2010 opthalmology vision science Tobii eye tracking 1750 serial memory spatial information distraction performance oculomotor behavior

in list: Ophthalmology & Vision science

ABSTRACT
How infants learn new words is a fundamental puzzle in language acquisition. To guide their word learning, infants exploit systematic word-learning heuristics that allow them to link new words to likely referents. By 17 months, infants show a tendency to associate a novel noun with a novel object rather than a familiar one, a heuristic known as disambiguation. Yet, the developmental origins of this heuristic remain unknown. We compared disambiguation in 17- to 18-month-old infants from different language backgrounds to determine whether language experience influences its development, or whether disambiguation instead emerges as a result of maturation or social experience. Monolinguals showed strong use of disambiguation, bilinguals showed marginal use, and trilinguals showed no disambiguation. The number of languages being learned, but not vocabulary size, predicted performance. The results point to a key role for language experience in the development of disambiguation, and help to distinguish among theoretical accounts of its emergence.

Canada 2010 developmental Tobii eye tracking 1750 Clearview linguistics infants language acquisition disambiguation monolingual bilingual trilingual experience

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
In order to improve human-computer interaction, eyetracking, physiological measures and task recognition are used to assess the content and quality of interaction in an ecommerce application with User Generated Content. Results are analyzed in conjunction with users’ verbalization and their subjective assessment of attitudes
toward the product and their wish to contribute.

2010 Canada HCI Usability Tobii eye tracking X120 content quality interaction e-commerce application user generated content

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Guidelines for designing information charts often state that the presentation should reduce ‗chart junk‘ – visual embellishments that are not essential to understanding the data. In contrast, some popular chart designers wrap the presented data in detailed and elaborate imagery, raising the questions of whether this imagery is really as detrimental to understanding as has been proposed, and whether the visual embellishment may have other benefits. To investigate these issues, we conducted an experiment that compared embellished charts with plain ones, and measured both interpretation accuracy and long-term recall. We found that people‘s accuracy in describing the embellished charts was no worse than for plain charts, and that their recall after a two-to-three-week gap was significantly better. Although we are cautious about recommending that all charts be produced in this style, our results question some of the premises of the minimalist approach to chart design.

2010 Canada HCI Tobii eye tracking information visualization embellishment charts interpretation recall comprehension memorability

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
In both behavioural and brain-imaging studies, numerical magnitude comparison tasks have been used to glean insights into the processing and representation of numerical magnitude. The present study examined the extent to which eye movement data can be used to investigate the neurocognitive processes underlying numerical magnitude processing. Twenty-two participants performed a numerical comparison task (deciding which of two Arabic numerals represents the larger numerical magnitude) while eye tracking data was recorded. The ratio between numbers (smaller/larger) was manipulated and ranged from 0.11 to 0.89. Consistent with previous reaction time and accuracy studies, the present results demonstrated significant main effects of ratio on the number of fixations, as well as a significant main effect of correct (numerically larger) versus incorrect (numerically smaller) number on the duration of fixations. Furthermore, data from the present investigation also revealed that participants made significantly more saccades between the two numbers for large relative to small ratio trials. Moreover, the ratio effects on eye movements were uncorrelated with the effect of numerical ratio on reaction times, suggesting that eye tracking measures of number comparison may tap into a different level of numerical magnitude processing than reaction time measures do.

Canada 2010 Cognitive Tobii eye tracking T120 numerical magnitude comparison ratio processing fixation saccade

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
Over the last decade or so, the Internet has become a privileged media for advertisement. Despite this increase in popularity, several studies suggested that Internet users 'avoid' looking at ads (what is often referred to as the banner blindness phenomena). This conclusion, however, rests mostly on indirect evidence that participants do not remember the ad content. Therefore, it is unclear whether participants actually fixated the ads and how their gaze behaviour is related to memory for the ad. In the present study, we investigated whether Internet users avoid looking at ads inserted on a non-search website using an analysis of eye movements, and if the ad content is kept in memory. Our results show that most participants fixate the ads at least once during their website visit. Moreover, even though the congruency between the ad and the editorial content had no effect on fixation duration on the ad, congruent ads were better memorised than incongruent ads. This study provides a novel and systematic method for assessing the processing and retention of advertisements during a website visit.

Canada 2010 Market Research Tobii eye tracking 1750 banner blindness avoidance advertising ads congruent

in list: Marketing and Market & Media Research

ABSTRACT
Is information from vision and audition mutually facilitative to categorization in infants? Ten-month-old infants can detect categories on the basis of correlations of five attributes of visual stimuli; four- and seven-month-olds are sensitive only to the specific attributes, rather than the correlations. If younger infants can detect specific attributes of visual stimuli, is there a way to facilitate the perception of these attributes as a meaningful correlation, and hence, as a category? The current studies investigate whether integrating information from two domains—speech within the auditory system together with shapes in the visual domain—could facilitate categorization. I hypothesized that 4-month-old infants could categorize audio-visual information by pairing correlation-based stimuli in the auditory domain (monosyllables) with correlation-based stimuli in the visual domain (line-drawn animals). In Experiment 1, infants were exposed to a series of line-drawn animals whose features were correlated to form two animal categories. During test, infants experienced three test trials: a novel member of a previously-shown category, a non-member of the categories (that shared similar features), and a completely novel animal. Experiment 2 used the same animals and paradigm, but each animal was presented with a speech stimulus (a repeating monosyllable) whose auditory features were correlated in order to form two categories. In Experiment 3, categorization of the auditory stimuli was investigated in the absence of the correlated visual information. Experiment 4 addressed some potential confounds of the findings from Experiment 2. Results from this series of studies show that 4-month-olds fail categorize in both visual-only and auditory-only conditions. However, when each visual exemplar is paired with a corresponding, correlated speech exemplar, infants can categorize; they look longer at a new, within-category exemplar than a new, category violator. These findings provide evidence that infants extract corr

Canada 2010 Tobii eye tracking speech shapes categorization correlation developmental infants

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
In categorization, emphasizing task-relevant information is critical for efficient performance. Such attentional optimization can occur concurrently with learning category structures, or may be delayed until after the categories have been mastered. Thus far, delayed attentional optimization has only been found in rule-based categories. The present studies use eye-tracking to investigate attentional optimization in rule-based (RB) and information integration (II) categories. Because working memory capacity is thought to reflect the ability to suppress task-irrelevant information, we also examined the relationship between Aospan performance and attentional optimization. We found that delayed attentional optimization is not a universal characteristic of RB categories, and that working memory predicts early attentional learning in simple categories, but predicts speed of category learning in complex categories. Working memory capacity's influence on optimization and performance does not differ between RB and II learning.

Canada 2010 Tobii eye tracking X120 attention categorization optimization learning error working memory rule information integration aospan cognitive Behavioral psychology

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
Gaze visualizations hold the potential to facilitate usability studies of interactive systems. However, visual gaze analysis in three-dimensional virtual environments still lacks methods and techniques for aggregating attentional representations. We propose three novel gaze visualizations for the application in such environments: projected, object-based, and surface-based attentional maps. These techniques provide an overview of how visual attention is distributed across a scene, among different models, and across a model’s surface. Two user studies conducted among eye tracking and visualization experts approve the high value of these techniques for the fast evaluation of eye tracking studies in virtual environments.

Canada 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 3d visualization maps attention virtual Usability aggregation

in list: Eye Tracking Technology

ABSTRACT
Click-based graphical passwords have been proposed as alternatives to text-based passwords, despite being potentially vulnerable to shoulder-surfing, where an attacker can learn passwords by watching or recording users as they log in. Cued Gaze-Points (CGP) is a graphical password system which defends against such attacks by using eye-gaze password input, instead of mouse-clicks. A first user study revealed that CGP's unique use of eye tracking required special techniques to improve gaze precision. In this paper, we present two enhancements that we developed and tested: a nearest-neighbour gaze-point aggregation algorithm and a 1-point calibration before each password entry. We found that these enhancements made a substantial improvement to users' gaze accuracy and system usability.

Canada 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 security shoulder-surfing graphical passwords HCI Usability

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
We present Cued Gaze-Points (CGP) as a shoulder-surfing resistant cued-recall graphical password scheme where users gaze instead of mouse-click. This approach has several advantages over similar eye-gaze systems, including a larger password space and its cued-recall nature that can help users remember multiple distinct passwords. Our 45-participant lab study is the first evaluation of gaze-based password entry via user-selected points on images. CGP's usability is potentially acceptable, warranting further refinement and study.

Canada 2010 Tobii eye tracking 1750 security password shoulder-surfing HCI Usability

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Learning to identify objects as members of categories is an essential cognitive skill and learning to deploy attention effectively is a core component of that process. The present study investigated an assumption imbedded in formal models of categorization: error is necessary for attentional learning. Eye-trackers were used to record participants’ allocation of attention to task relevant and irrelevant features while learning a complex categorization task. It was found that participants optimized their fixation patterns in the absence of both performance errors and corrective external feedback. Optimization began immediately after each category was mastered and continued for many trials. These results demonstrate that error is neither necessary nor sufficient for all forms of attentional learning.

Canada 2009 Cognitive Behavioral Tobii eye tracking identification categorization attention error learning task optimization

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
Displays combining both 2D and 3D views have been shown to support higher performance on certain visualization tasks. However, it is not clear how best to arrange a combination of 2D and 3D views spatially in a display. In this study, we analyzed the eyegaze strategies of participants using two arrangements of 2D and 3D views to estimate the relative position of objects in a 3D scene. Our results show that the 3D view was used significantly more often than individual 2D views in both displays, indicating the importance of the 3D view for successful task completion. However, viewing patterns were significantly different between the two displays: transitions through centrally-placed views were always more frequent, and users avoided saccades between views that were far apart. Although the change in viewing strategy did not result in significant performance differences, error analysis indicates that a 3D overview in the center may reduce the number of serious errors compared to a 3D overview placed off to the side.

Canada 2005 HCI Usability Tobii eye tracking 1750 2d 3d arrange task patterns error viewing

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Web browsers support secure online transactions, and provide visual feedback mechanisms to inform the user about security. These mechanisms have had little evaluation to determine how easily they are noticed and how effectively they are used. This paper describes a preliminary study conducted to determine which elements are noted, which are ignored, and how easily they are found. We collected eyetracker data to study user's attention to browser security, and gathered additional subjective data through questionnaires. Our results demonstrated that while the lock icon is commonly viewed, its interactive capability is essentially ignored. We also found that certificate information is rarely used, and that people stop looking for security information after they have signed into a site. These initial results provide insights into how browser security cues might be improved.

Canada 2005 HCI Usability secure transactions feedback online certificate log in Tobii X50 eye tracking

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
We present the Attentive Hearing Aid, a system that uses eye input to amplify the audio of tagged sound sources in the environment. A multidisciplinary project, we use the latest technology to take advantage of the social phenomenon of turn-taking in human-human communication, and apply this in a new kind of assistive hearing device. Using hearing-impaired participants, we evaluated the use of eye input for switching between sound sources on a screen in terms of switch time and the recall of audiovisual material. We compared eye input to a control condition and two manual selection techniques: using a remote to point at the target on the screen, and using buttons to select the target. Results show that in terms of switch time, Eyes were 73% faster than Pointing and 58% faster than Buttons. In terms of recall, Eyes performed 80% better than Control, 54% better than Buttons, and 37% better than Pointing. In a post-evaluation user experience survey, participants rated Eyes highest in "easiest", "most natural", and "best overall" categories. We present the implications of this work as a new type of assistive hearing device, and also discuss how this system could benefit non-hearing-impaired individuals.

2007 Canada Tobii ET-17 HCI Usability eye tracking auditory amplification assistive hearing device control attention

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Infants growing up bilingual provide a unique window into how the language environment interacts with word learning and word comprehension mechanisms. The present studies used a preferential looking paradigm to investigate monolingual and bilingual 18-month-old infants’ responses to familiar and novel words. Monolinguals and bilinguals both responded to familiar words with increased attention to the target object. Both groups also showed the mutual exclusivity effect in response to a novel word, by increasing attention to an unfamiliar object. However, while monolinguals showed a linear pattern of increasing attention to the unfamiliar object over time, bilingual infants initially increased attention to the distracter and only later increased attention to the unfamiliar object. These results suggest that monolingual and bilinguals infants use a different processing strategy in demonstrating the mutual exclusivity effect, which may arise from differences in lexical knowledge and organization. The results support the view that differences in early linguistic experience can affect emerging word learning constraints.

Canada 2006 language bilingual learning comprehension monolingual attention Tobii eye tracking 1750 ClearView

in list: Developmental Research

ABSTRACT
When viewing ambiguous figures, individuals can exert selective attentional control over their perceptual reversibility behaviour (e.g., Strüber & Stadler, 1999). In the current study, we replicated this finding but we also found that ambiguous figures containing faces are processed quite differently from those containing objects. Furthermore, inverting an ambiguous figure containing faces (i.e., Rubin's vase-face) resulted in an "inversion effect". These findings highlight the importance of considering how we attend to faces in addition to how we perceive and process faces. Describing the perceptual reversal patterns of individuals in the general population allowed us to draw comparisons to behaviours exhibited by individuals with Asperger Syndrome (AS). The group data suggested that these individuals were less affected by figure type or stimulus inversion. Examination of individual scores, moreover, revealed that the majority of participants with AS showed an atypical reversal pattern, particularly with ambiguous figures containing faces, and an atypical inversion effect. Together, our results show that ambiguous figures can be a very valuable tool for examining face processing mechanisms in the general population and other distinct groups of individuals, particularly those diagnosed with AS.

2008 Canada Tobii 1750 selective attention perceptual Switching ambiguous figures eye tracking processed Asperger

in list: Cognitive & Behavioural Psychology

ABSTRACT
This thesis presents a new approach to haptic interaction technique design in which haptic feedback is displayed with a device held in the non-dominant hand, while the dominant hand controls a standard mouse. I believe that this approach has the potential to increase the fluency of everyday human-computer interaction by enabling a more effective division of tasks between the haptic and visual modalities. These ideas are expounded in a set of principles intended to guide the design of such techniques. I also present Pokespace, a novel interaction technique which follows those principles. Finally, I describe a series of three user studies intended to investigate and evaluate both the design principles and Pokespace. The results of the studies, though not unanimously positive, confirmed that Pokespace has the potential to support interaction without visual attention, and suggested several improvements to both the interaction technique and the underlying principles.

2006 Canada haptic 1750 Tobii eye tracking ClearView feedback HCI Usability interaction pokespace visual attention

in list: HCI & Usability

ABSTRACT
Building on Message Framing Theory and the Elaboration likelihood Model (ELM), this study examined how message frame impacts viewer attention to and cognitive processing of osteoporosis prevention print ads. Attention was measured with eye tracking technology, which calculated participants’ number of fixations and dwell time. Cognitive processing was assessed through a textual masked-recall exercise. Sixty women, with a mean age of 21.25+/-2.61 years, viewed the same 36 ads; however, the message frame changed on a randomized, rotating basis, resulting in each group viewing 12 gain-, 12 loss-, and 12 neutrally-framed ads. One-way repeated measures analyses of variance revealed that message frame significantly impacted viewers’ number of fixations, F(2,118)=8.18, p<.01, η2= .12 dwell time, F(2,118)=9.84, p<.01, η2= .14 and masked-recall results, F(2,118)=22.28, p<.01, η2 = .27. Viewers’ number of fixations, dwell time and recall of gain-framed osteoporosis prevention ads was significantly higher than to loss- or neutrally-framed ads, p<.01. Message frame was also positively correlated with number of fixations, r=.29, p<.02 and dwell time, r=.42, p<.01. Findings may help expand theory related to message framing and the ELM, while contributing to advancements in eye tracking literature and health communications practice.

2009 Canada Tobii 1750 Message Framing Theory eye tracking attention print advertisements recall framing osteoporosis

in list: HCI & Usability