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One should not overlook the use of text as part of paratextual apparatuses such as titles, credits, and end markers ("The End" or "To be continued...") Titles and credits are most often seen in pamphlets and anthologies as opposed to longer volumes. Will Eisner is deservedly famous for the inventive use of titles in his Spirit work (see below).

10. Titles, Credits, Etc.

This use of text in a comic is one area where many readers will (have) say that it is "not comics." While this does veer towards illustrated text, Sim's use is only a small part of the larger work and tends to serve a very specific function in Cerebus. A great majority of his text blocks contain text that is in itself text within the narrative (in content if not visually like the Mazzuchelli image above). In the example above, the text is part of a written story by Sim's Oscar Wilde pastiche (seen in the image). As we see him working on it, we read the text itself. In many cases large text blocks like this are just extended forms of the narrative captions (such as M'Oak does in Thieves & Kings). A good way to get out a lot of narrative in one fell swoop

Another, fairly uncommon use of text is the long "text block" most (in)famously used by Dave Sim in later issues of Cerebus. The example below from Jaka's Story is a short example.

9. Text Blocks

The second panel, by John Porcellino (King-Cat #65), uses a similar tactic. The words "chaos" and "blur" are neither sounds nor narration nor part of the represented scene (those words aren't objects floating around the room) but a textual adjective added to the visual image. While the panel would be identifiable without these words, they add atmosphere to the scene. It could be argued that if he wants to express these ideas, he should make the drawing represent these qualities, but as comics are already a mixture of words and pictures, these tactics fit perfectly. In a way, this is an even further mixture of words and pictures. If one recalls McCloud’s pyramid of drawings, Porcellino’s drawings often sit right on the line between the iconic image and words.

Frank Santoro uses text as a kind of modifier to the image. See the panel below (from Cold Heat) where the text works to add description to the image (Huizenga does this, too).

8. Text as Modifier

Larson also uses text as a descriptive label for an image in a panel. The cookies in the panel belowe would be extremely ambiguous -- is it fruit? -- were it not for the accompanying text.

In a similar vein, Hope Larson here (in Gray Horses) uses words to describe a smell. It's hard not to call this a "smell effect", with curly lines that seem to represent the wafting of the smell through the air. As far as I've seen this is an extremely rare use of text in comics.

6. Text as Smell

Most sound effects are onomatopoetic but text can also be used to describe or label a sound rather than to recreate it. Porcellino's image below goes beyond the normal onomatopoeic use (i.e. “thwup”, “crash”, etc.). Instead of trying to recreate the sound, he uses words to describe the sound. In the panel, the word "tune" above the guitarist's head evokes the participation of the reader's experience to hear the noodlings and repeated tones of a guitarist tuning his instrument. This would be extremely difficult to recreate with traditional sound effects.

Sound effects have a long history of use in comics (which would make a great study), serving as a representation of non-speech sound.  Sound effects are one of the most common places the appearance of the letters/words is used to create meaning in comics.

5. Text as Sound Effect

Text is also used as part of an image, a detail in a representational image such as a sign (see the Jaime Hernandez panel below), text on a t-shirt, or even text on a letter within the panel (the David Mazzuchelli panel below). As opposed to speech, thought, or narration we read this text as part of the represented space/objects even if, in some cases, the text is read as narration (like the Mazzuchelli panel).

4. Text in an Image

Frequently overlapping with the previous two items is the use of text as narration. While the above two are used to represent speech/thought that exist within the visual space of the panel, narration is often displaced from the visual image by either time or space. That is, the narrator may be speaking from a place outside the normal space of the narrative, such as someone telling a story that happened in the past (see the Kevin Huizenga image above from Or Else #3) or a narrator that exists outside the story (like the classic Marvel narration of Stan Lee seen above or the oft-used narration of time/place indicators "Later" or "Back at home").

3. Text as Narration

Words used to represent interior monologue is not quite as common as words for speech. This has traditionally (though now rather out of vogue) been shown inside the scalloped thought balloon with a series of circles linking text to character. Unlike the previous use of text, we do not read this as audible sound within the panel. This usage can often overlap with the next one, as interior monologues can be treated as narration. This particular usage (thought balloon style) is more often a less consistent use of interior monologue -- the thought balloon may appear for a character in only single panel or in a number of non-contiguous panels throughout a story. These will also tend to be used for numerous characters often at the same time (in the same panel), while an interior monologue narration will tend to stick to one character for a whole work or for a longer section of a work.

2. Text as Interior Monologue

Probably the most dynamic use of speech text in any comic is Dave Sim's work in Cerebus (there's a reason I mention him a few times in this column, he is a master of text in comics). Sim treats the text as images, altering their style and layout as necessary to produce narrative effects (see above for a simple example).

Text as a representation of speech (whether in balloons or not) is almost (but not quite) essential to comics. A host of visual idioms have developed over the years to mark text as speech text. The most common is the word balloon, usually with the accompanying tail that links speech to speaker. Often the balloon is omitted but the tail remains as a simple line pointing from text to character.

1.  Text as Speech

This month, I'm going to make an illustrated list of different uses of text in comics. A number of these items will be familiar and are ubiquitous in comics; I think a few will be unusual and perhaps inspiring. I make no claims for exhaustiveness, nor is my list structured in any way. Suggestions are welcome in the comments.

Comics without text are unusual enough that they have their own name: "silent comics" (like silent film) or "wordless comics" (in France they use "muette").

Case in point would be the above page by Ho Che Anderson from Black Dogs. The opening shot is the first for this scene. On the previous page there is no mention of the couple in the story going to sit somewhere and talk under what appears to be an outdoor picnic area type of place. But there is no "master shot" of the couple talking, just that mustard color jacket under the shelter to give us a hint that they are sitting at a picnic table. Like Baker, Anderson uses close cropped framing to draw out the emotional content of the dialogue, but unlike Baker, Anderson makes it very difficult for the reader to follow the thread, to "read" into the charged conversation (it's about race). In fact, it's almost "un-readable", the cropping of the figures is crowded further by the balloons of text creating a claustrophobic feeling that might in some strange way add tension to the conversation but instead just turns me off as a reader. I lost interest simply because it's too hard to follow along. And I found it frustrating that such an important passage of the story (on the next page there is a fight) is without any structure to hold it all together, to move the reader through the page.

Baker employs an invisible grid to hang his panels on and puts all the dialogue under the panels and more importantly under the person who is talking. It's a signature device that Baker really made his own in Why I Hate Saturn and here he uses it effortlessly to great effect. By placing the dialogue below the panels he opens up the drawings themselves to function as film stills and encourages the reader to "read" the expressions, to really take time with them somehow.