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Reading research papers ("primary articles") is partly a matter of
experience and skill, and partly learning the specific vocabulary of a
field. First of all, DON'T PANIC! If you approach it step by step, even
an impossible-looking paper can be understood.

1. Skimming. Skim the paper quickly, noting basics like headings,
figures and the like. This takes just a few minutes. You're not trying
to understand it yet, but just to get an overview.

2. Vocabulary. Go through the paper word by word and line by
line, underlining or highlighting every word and phrase you don't
understand. Don't worry if there are a lot of underlinings; you're still
not trying to make sense of the article.

Now you have several things you might do with these vocabulary and concept
questions, depending upon the kind of question each is. You can

1. 
   Look up simple words and phrases. Often the question is simply vocabulary--what's
   a lateral malleolus, or a christa, or the semilunar valve.
   A medical or biological dictionary is a good place to look
   for definitions. A textbook of physiology or anatomy may be a good
   source, because it give more complete explanations. Your ordinary shelf
   dictionary is not a good source, because the definitions may
   not be precise enough or may not reflect the way in which scientists use
   a word (for example "efficiency" has a common definition, but the physical
   definition is much more restricted.)



2. 
   Get an understanding from the context in which it is used. Often
   words that are used to describe the procedures used in an experiment can
   be understood from the context, and may be very specific to the paper you
   are reading. Examples are the "lithium-free control group" in a rat experiment
   or the "carotene extraction procedure" in a biochemical experiment. Of
   course, you should be careful when deciding that you understand a word
   from its context, because it might not mean what you think.



3. 
   Flag this phrase as belonging to one of the major concepts of the paper--it's
   bigger than a vocabulary question. For example, a paper about diet and
   cancer might refer to "risk reduction," which you would need to understand
   in context and in some depth.

In the Introduction, note how the context is set. What larger
question is this a part of? The author should summarize and comment on
previous research, and you should distinguish between previous research
and the actual current study. What is the hypothesis of the paper and the
ways this will be tested?

In the Methods, try to get a clear picture of what was done at
each step. What was actually measured? It is a good idea to make an outline
and/or sketch of the procedures and instruments. Keep notes of your questions;
some of them may be simply technical, but others may point to more fundamental
considerations that you will use for reflection and criticism below.

In Results look carefully at the figures and tables, as they
are the heart of most papers. A scientist will often read the figures and
tables before deciding whether it is worthwhile to read the rest of the
article! What does it mean to "understand" a figure? You understand a figure
when you can redraw it and explain it in plain English words.

The Discussion contains the conclusions that the author would
like to draw from the data. In some papers, this section has a lot of interpretation
and is very important. In any case, this is usually where the author reflects
on the work and its meaning in relation to other findings and to the field
in general.

4. Reflection and criticism. After you understand the article
and can summarize it, then you can return to broader questions and draw
your own conclusions. It is very useful to keep track of your questions
as you go along, returning to see whether they have been answered. Often,
the simple questions may contain the seeds of very deep thoughts about
the work--for example, "Why did the authors use a questionnaire at the
end of the month to find out about premenstrual tension? Wouldn't subjects
forget or have trouble recalling?"

Here are some questions that may be useful in analyzing various kinds
of research papers:

Introduction: