BS' Blog: Filesystem Fundamentals and Practices
Tags: _tmp, _var, ext, fat, filesystem, imported, inode, linux, microsoft, ms-dos, ntfs, red_hat, reiserfs, rhel, sco, selinux, suse, symlink, unix, windows, xenix, xfs on 2007-11-10 -All Annotations (0) -About
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- Microsoft (MS) DOS 1.0
MS-DOS 1.0 was a direct (and illegal) port of Digital Research's CP/M from the 8080 to 8088. There is a long history on that (MS bought it from Seattle Computer Products, the original piraters, for $50,000, which IBM later settled out-of-court with DR for $800,000). But the limitations of CP/M were clear, no directories, only 1,024 files in the filesystem, and filesystem reference was by drive letter (e.g., A:, B:, C:).
The File Allocation Table (FAT) approach was simple, but effective. The filesystem was a simple set of sectors, with two (2) file allocation tables, one original, one backup. The allocation tables were to track allocation of sectors. If a file was allocated space, if it only took up one sector, then the relative FAT entry for that sector would be noted as the end of the file. If the file took up more than one sector, then the initial FAT entry would note the next sector of the file. Each file is a chain of entries in the FAT referencing the next sector.
The FAT references were 12-bit, allowing up to 4,096 sectors to be addressed. With sector sizes of 512, 1,024 or 2,048 bytes, FAT12 could handle up to a 8MiB device. With up to 1,024 filenames, the FAT of a FAT12 only took up 1.5KiB (12,144 bits) of space. -
NTFS is, in essence, a modified version of FAT. It still uses a FAT design, but has far fewer limitations (e.g., no more 8.3 limitations), uses a more intelligent approach. One is that the FATs are located closer to the middle of the filesystem, to reduce seek times (FAT filesystems allocate them at the start). And there are now formal approaches to discover which copies of the FAT are correct when they differ. Lastly, like HPFS, NTFS marks and forces filesystem integrity checks when the system is not properly shutdown and the filesystem taken off-line (and uses the same CHKDSK.EXE program, although radically different than the legacy DOS program of the same name). NTFS one-ups HPFS by adding journaling, which reduces the recovery time requires for brining the filesystem on-line as consistent.
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Windows Millenium Edition (ME) was a Microsoft experiment to remove a lot of the legacy DOS 20-3Fh services and various interface options to force its own software application developers and indepenent software vendors (ISVs) to stop using the legacy DOS interfaces and start using the native NT/Win32 filesystem interfaces (among others). It was an utter-failure as it did little to force change, all while destroying compatibility.
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Most people think it is lack of filesystem journaling (i.e., recording transactions and ensuring they are completed, somewhat like the "Atomicity" -- the first part of ACID in a good database design -- in a filesystem) is the issue, but it's actually not at all. Because even non-journaling filesystems in UNIX have at least a mechanism to not only ensure consistency, but force a check to make the filesystem consistent. All of Microsoft's FAT filesystems, even in NT5 (200x/XP), never force the user to fully check a filesystem for consistency before mounting. In UNIX, we only allow filesystems to be mounted "read-only," if at all, until they are checked for consistency -- so no changes could occur on a possibly inconsistent filesystem.
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NT systems have no concept of a "read-only" mount. During start-up, NT expects everything but the "System" volume (the "System" volume is BIOS fixed disk 80h with the MBR, NTLDR, BOOT.INI, optional NTBOOTDD.SYS 3rd party disk driver, etc...) to be read/write, including the "Boot" volume (the "Boot" volume, which ironically comes after the "System" volume/stage, is the volume with \WINNT or \WINDOWS). This is due to the fact that many NT services expect the filesystem to be writeable during boot, including before any filesystem integrity check and/or journal replay of NTFS is made -- which could result in corruption.
Adding insult into injury, NTFS is very, very aggressive in its journal playback. Unless forced by explicity user option, NTFS often replays its journal. In rare, but eventually probable cases over extended usage and time, NTFS will self-destruct and leave itself unable to recover from a manual CHKDSK. Therefore, it is important that NT system administrators regularly force a manual CHKDSK at next boot to enforce regular, full filesystem integrity checks and minimize the chance of a future, improper journal replay. -
- inode filesystems
UNIX systems use inode filesystems. Each filesystem entry, typically a directory or file, has an inode that stores both meta-data, and points to the data blocks. A key difference and mindshift from a FAT design is that FAT has a dedicated allocation table with a 1:1 reference to data blocks -- whereas inode filesystems actually use two different data block types, the data blocks and the inode blocks that point to them. FAT uses a dedicated allocation table of all possible blocks that could be allocated, inodes do not -- in fact, some filesystems (that pre-allocate inodes) could "run out of inodes" when a filesystem contains lots of small files and there is not a 1:1 inode to data block (e.g., run "df" and "df -i" and note the actual data blocks and inodes used).
Pretty much every data block in an inode filesystem has an inode pointer using it, or reserving it (although designs differ), except the rare Superblocks. The Superblocks contains the core filesystem information (basic filesystem values, location of key inodes, free blocks, etc...) and only type of a few kilobytes (typically one data block, 4KiB is commonplace), and several, redundant copies are spread all over the disk (typically at fixed locations that are easy for experienced administrators to find in case a filesystem can and should be mounted with an alternate superblock). -
A FAT filesystem makes it easy to check for free blocks. Inode filesystems are more arbitrary, and a filesystem consistency check is always recommended on a regular basis to ensure the number of free blocks, as well lists of blocks that are available or have been freed, are consistent. A FAT filesystem also makes it much easier to check for cross-linked files, whereas all inodes need to be inspected to see if multiple data blocks are referenced by different inodes (although there is an interesting bonus to this, as we'll discuss). Inode operations definitely make checks longer and more involved, although there are bonuses to this in consistency (which we'll discuss).
A big one to start is actually a surprise to many. Most Windows users assume that the "root inode" makes an inode filesystem more suseptible to corruption than a FAT filesystem, because it points to everything else. In recovery, it's actually the opposite, a major benefit. FAT filesystems separate the allocation entries (in the fixed FAT) from the directory references (in special data blocks) which means there are 2 different points where a failure could destroy the same data. Again, this is because the FAT design comes from MS-DOS 1.0 before directories were added in MS-DOS 2.1. Although NTFS improves somewhat on this separation, by allocating directories separate from files, it's still 2 points where either can cause the same, severe damage. Anyone who has had even a CHKDSK on a NTFS filesystem result in unknown "FILE####.CHK" files that no one knows about has experienced this issue first hand.
In an inode filesystem, if directory links are severed between the root inode, or any parent directory inodes below, at least the inodes below that inode are now their own tree. This is because inodes store both the directory tree and pointers to data blocks in one structure, the inode itself. If a filesystem integrity results in the portion of the tree being "severed," the portion of the tree typically shows up a its own, self-contained tree under the typicaly "lost+found" directory -- names, directories, subdirectories, etc... intact. It all depends on the locality of the corruption or other fixed inconsistency, but if there was only a few points of actual "corruption," inode filesystems tend to be much easier to "piece back together" than FAT designs as a result of the "reference and allocation information as one" inode design. -
Most UNIX/Linux filesystems do many things to reserve usage of a filesystem. A big one is the common 2-10% (Ext2/3 use 5% by default) reservation of a filesystem. When a filesystem reaches 90-98% full (95% full on Ext2/3 by default), the kernel will prevent any further writing to the filesystem by anyone but root. Not only are the regular users, but most processes, are not running as root, so the disk stops allowing writes at 90-98%. At first this seems foolish and, in fact, many people complain about it, but it is for one very big reason -- fragmentation.
Fragmentation exponentially increases as a filesystem fills up. This reservation is a long taught, long learned lesson for UNIX/Linux administrators that should be very respected. Anyone who has filled up a Windows server volume should appreciate this given how poorly a Windows server performs afterwards, which is the same problem a UNIX server would suffer if it allowed it too. But unlike Windows servers, almost all UNIX/Linux distributions and filesystems (with a few, notable exceptions) enact this reservation -- to combat sudden and horrendous fragmentation that occurs as a filesystem becomes nearly full. -
I never make just one data filesystem, I make at least two. That way, if a full fsck is required on one, I can bring the server up and let half my users work while the other half waits 15-60 minutes, instead of having all my users wait on the 30-120 minute fsck required on one, big data filesystem.
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I leave it up to individual sysadmins to decide for themselves, but I encourage you not to avoid learning LDM and LVM/LVM2 because there are sound reasons for doing so.
In fact, the common physical volume (pv), volume group (vg), logical volume (lv) 3-level approach i Linux's LVM is basically ubiquitous across a host of UNIX flavors and their various platforms. Learning the elementary terminology, and how to do basic, harmless operations like allocation new space, is highly recommended. If you don't know your way around any UNIX LVM, then learn it so you are ready to deal with most implementations. -
I absolutely and positively will not tolerate /tmp and /var on anything else. If I am absolutely hurting for space, I will symlink /tmp -> /var/tmp. I like to avoid putting even /tmp on the root filesystem. When implementing these "bare minimum" Linux filesystems, I assume /home will be mounted remotely. If not, then a separate /home filesystem is of great consideration, although there are one or two workarounds (see /usr/local below).
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ReiserFS continues to builds a revolutionary filesystem that lacks traditional UNIX inode layout and interfaces, which is why ReiserFS lacks a lot of kernel feature compatibility, and not all of the Linux Virtual Filesystem (VFS) layers can abstract these features to ReiserFS that just isn't of the same, traditional design. This prevents me from using ReiserFS. As an additional consideration, by his own admission, Hans Reiser has stated that filesystems should be redesigned every 5 years. As much as I've seen ReiserFS handle dynamic changes without incident, as much as I've never seen ReiserFS make a journal misplay, the fact remains that with a continually fluid design, or significant changes on a regular basis, the off-line tools continue to lag the on-line kernel implementation. So while I might be okay as long as a ReiserFS filesystem is matched against the proper kernel, the second ReiserFS does properly not trust its journal replay, I'm at the mercy of the off-line tools. And so far, I've had horrendous luck when that happens.
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I adopted Ext3 in early 2000 for kernel 2.2 when it was still only the "[full data] journaling" mode. It was little more than simple "double-buffer" commit. It was easily converted to Ext2, as well as back, and it did the job to drastically reduce fsck times. Probably the biggest sell for Ext3 was the ability to drop into a full fsck when necessary -- something that saved me dearly when a physical disk error occured (and my RAID card firmware and driver were not compatible -- long story). To use a trusted fsck of 10 years on a filesystem whose structure had not changed in the same period of time was convincing enough.
Since then, I have only trusted my "essential" filesystems to Ext3 without reservation. I have never lost a Ext3 filesystem, and I have had no unexpected data loss with either "journal" or "ordered writes" mode. I purposely avoid "write back" mode due to its inherent issues that it could affect files that are not being modified. With newer directory indexing features, I find the performance of Ext3 to be more than adequate for filesystems under 100GB. It should be noted that I purposely avoid using Ext3 on filesystems greater than 1TB (even though newer versions support up to 8.8TB/8TiB).
The Ext3 base feature set -- full NFS compatibility, most other, standard Linux features in mid-to-late 2.4 (quotas, POSIX EAs/ACLs, etc...) were sufficient for most operations -- especially in the early days of Ext3 back in kernel 2.2. -
the major, key differentiation of XFS is built upon its existing, proven, stable structure on Irix. That included the full suite of off-line tools with 5+ years deployment -- xfs_repair, xfsdump/xfsrestore, xfs_growfs, etc... The off-line repair tool was very trusted. The dump/restore , combined with the native inode storage of any EAs/ACLs info directly in the inode**, but it could be safely run against a mounted XFS filesystem and did not require a snapshot or other volume management "freeze" (unlike Ext3). It already had the ability to be grown, managed, reorganized (defragmentor), etc... with the existing suite of off-line tools that pre-existed, not what was being promised to be developed, etc...
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For data filesystems, I was sold on XFS and started using it immediately. I tested XFS for other filesystems as well, but quickly stopped considering it after both the performance of "temporary" filesystems was not optimal combined with the fact that I had two /var filesystems get hit by the XFS 1.0 bug. The bug was an oversight in the design of the one additional requirement for the Linux port, the paging facility that was previous tied to Irix -- something that has been long fixed and is now trusted (especially in 2.6 where the paging facilities are part of the stock kernel code).
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The only issue of major concern with Ext3 is the pre-allocation of inodes. The ratio of inodes to blocks is typically 8-16 or so (one inode for every 32-64KB on the typical filesystem with 4KB blocks). On the /var filesystem, or another temporary filesystem with lots of small files -- possibly a mail or news spooler (although not nearly as much in the case of mail these last few years with MS-TNEF flying around ;-), this is not ideal. It is very often the case that a "df -i" will result in twice as many inodes used than actual blocks -- although newer logging defaults in most distributions/services are not nearly as bad as of late. So using the "-i" or "-T" option to "mke2fs" when creating /var or a /var/"spool" directory is recommended for Ext3 /var and /var/spool filesystems. E.g. (1:1 inode-to-data block assuming a default data block is 4KB):
# mke2fs -i 4096 -j -L var /dev/vg00/lv04
# mke2fs -j -L var -T news /dev/vg00/lv04
See "man 8 mke2fs" for more information. -
However, I typically deploy XFS on user data filesystems, and the rare, large service directory (e.g., database, IMAP spool, etc...). On user data filesystems, I typically wish to take full advantage of Extended Attributes (EAs) like Quotes, ACLs, SELinux, etc... support. The default 256 byte size of a XFS inode is not ideally suited for storing POSIX ACLs, as less than 64 bytes are typically left for EAs. Should an inode need more space, a full data block (typically 4KB) would be allocated, which is not always ideal, plus it means not all of the meta-data is stored in a single inode. So when using ACLs and/or SELinux, increasing the inode size in XFS to 512 bytes (possibly 1024 bytes when using both heavily) is recommended, at only a small disk penalty overall (a tad more noticable with 1024 bytes). The option to use a larger inode size when creating a XFS filesystem is "-i size=value" such as follows:
# mkfs.xfs -i size=512 -L engr_unclass /dev/vg01/lv01
# mkfs.xfs -i size=1024 -L engr_secret /dev/vg02/lv01 -
1. Kernel 2.4
I have _never_ used the XFS backport to kernel 2.4. Frankly, I don't trust it. Not because of XFS, but because of kernel 2.4, and because it doesn't come directly from SGI, tested and blessed.
I have only used the official XFS releases for kernel 2.4, largely XFS 1.2 for Red Hat 7.x, with limited use of 1.3 on Red Hat Linux 9. In fact, I kept deploying only Red Hat Linux 7.3 and, to a lesser extent, Red Hat Linux 9 with XFS until late last year (once Fedora Core 3 came out), tapping FedoraLegacy.ORG for updates. Again, this means I'm back at kernel 2.4.20 -- and I really never trusted newer 2.4 kernels anyway! I have not had the NFS issues others have complained about, and I've had a real crutch on xfsdump for backups includingACL information, as well as quota support. -
3. LVM/MD Usage
I limit my use to LVM to volume slicing. Let me start by saying that I'm a huge fan of volume management. I use both LVM and LVM2 for flexible, on-line additions/modifications of logical volumes. In a nutshell, Ilargely use it to slice my disks with more flexibility -- reserving space, create new volumes as necessary and theoccassional expansion (although I typically try to stick to new mounts/symlinks).
But with that said, let it be known that I don't trust LVM and especially not LVM2 with snapshots, more complex resizing and definitely not any RAID operations. I do not trust DeviceMapper (DM) with either LVM2 or EMVS right now. Why? All I keep reading is about is race condition after racecondition after race condition. And in each case, it's not limited to XFS.
When it comes to MD, I really avoid it. I always have. I've seen a lot of people talk about how software RAID is better, faster, etc... I've seen people state that it allows them to use different disk controllers and other hardware, and not be tied to a vendor. They also claim its more flexible and gives them more options. While I believe they are sincere, I can quickly and easily point out they are not comparing software RAID to solid, proven hardware RAID products from select vendors. I've just had a different set of hardware RAID experiences.First off, I've limited myself to only 3Ware and select LSILogic (including former Mylex) products over the last 5 years. 3Ware uses an ASIC-driven "storage switch" and I have only deployed LSI Logic (and former Mylex) products thatare XScale (which is based on StrongARM). These are very, very high performing -- able to move a lot of data with not only little CPU overhead, but more importantly, without the extensive use and duplication of data streams through the CPU-memory interconnect. I.e., it's not the XORs that get you, but the duplicated data streams tying up the interconnect that data services could be using. It's the same reason why hardware switches/routers are better networking equipment than PCs -- these "storage switch - I/O processors"are the same. Their on-board RAID intelligence is self-contained meaning their drivers are simple, GPL block drivers. Even Intel is moving to put its XScale I/O Processors (IOP) on Xeon mainboards, possibly in the I/O Controller Hub (ICH), directly -- to off-load these unnecessary operations for today's network/storage (RAID, layer 2/3/4 frames/packets/transports, iSCSI overhead, etc...) off of the CPU-memory which it is not designed for (and only unnecessarily duplicates data streams taking time away from actual data processing).
Kinnison's review of The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche
Tags: book, imported, mencken, nietzsche, philosophy, review on 2007-11-09 -All Annotations (0) -About
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In his own lifetime Nietzsche observed that in most cases "whoever thought he had understood something of me had made up something out of me after his own image (Ecce Homo III I)," and such is the case of Mencken.
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one might find this book worthwhile for a number of reasons; as an example of how Nietzsche was often understood when his influence was first making itself felt; as one of the earliest works of an exceptional man in his own right; and there are even parts which do serve their intended purpose quite well (I think Nietzsche would have entirely approved of the chapter on Education). Finally I myself found Mencken useful here as a sort of intellectual sparring partner; having read a good deal of Nietzsche, I wanted to sort out my own thoughts by putting them up against those of another intelligent but non-specialist reader. So the book does have its uses, just not the one it claims to.
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Say what you want of Mencken; he never levelled the guns of his criticism at anyone who could not fire back. By contrast; in our gallant Christian country, when some helpless nonconformist is set upon by a mob, it is usually with odds of ten against one, or more--something Mencken never ceased to scorn.
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Concerning Frau Foerster-Nietzsche, as her brother's literary executor she certainly did him no service by adulterating his ideas with vile antisemitism and lending his name to Nazism. Not that antisemitism is such a bad thing in the eyes of some.
As for "Prometheus'" remark about Nietzsche's face "covered... in drool"; is this not Christian lovingkindness at it's finest? This sort of thing merely helps prove the point of Nietzsche's unwatered contempt for Christianity.
The Secret to Self Loving
Tags: dating, imported, musings, solitary on 2007-11-08 and saved by3 people -All Annotations (-1) -About
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- Love: Raw Beauty. The author’s knack for turning loneliness into solitude deserves a nod on it’s own right. Her content speaks nothing to me yet the down to earthiness of the whole thing captures a piece of my soul that defies normal orthodox writing. It is for this reason that I record this in the hopes of reproducing the effect of her style to my own writingspost by darorme on 2007-11-06
Hate: The whole article reeks of a self-help guide. As much passion as the author’s writing seem to embody, it doesn’t hide the fact that her suggestions suck and is at best no more impressive than the most mediocre of tedious tasks. In no way is the author imparting any wisdom and she doesn’t even hide the fact that she’s just sugar coating her occassional menial acts and trying to pull the sentimental strings of her readers.
What captivated me the most about the article? Reading it made me remember the memories I had while walking.
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- Remove Disturbances - unplug your phone, power down the cell phone and blackberry, shut down the computer, turn off the tv. Do not let your mind get distracted during your self-date. This is your time to just be with yourself.
- Being Solo - It’s important that you are on your own. You can talk to strangers, and make new friends, but you are on the self-date to get acquainted with yourself, no one else. If you live with a partner, schedule it so he/she isn’t home, or just take yourself out of the house. If you have kids, find a sitter, or plan around when your kids are not at home. It’s also important to realize that this time is a gift for yourself, and you should only be focused on your well-being.
- Schedule - Plan how long you would like your dates to last. Set a minimum time, and commit to focus on yourself for at least that time. I typically schedule 2-4 hour dates with myself.
- Communicate - if you are in a relationship, it’s important to communicate what you are doing and it’s benefits clearly with your partner. Not only do we get their support, but also avoid any misunderstandings or neglect.
This past year, I have come to appreciate the power of truly loving myself. Most of my life, being alone was one of my biggest fears. I found myself in numerous relationships for the wrong reasons and ended up settling in ill-fitting ‘partnerships’. This deeply rooted fear and lack of understanding of myself caused the relationships to become my whole world; my focus of attention; my center. I would sacrifice my own goals for the other person. And, when the relationship collapsed, so did my sense of self.
Through much introspection, I realized the source of these failed relationships was myself. I realized that I didn’t truly love or appreciate myself and had relied on external sources for love and approval. I decided to change. I had to overcome my fear of loneliness by finding independence and personal freedom. Even since I found true appreciation for myself, the quality of relationships I have attracted has been phenomenal. I have discovered that the more I loved and understood myself, the less I feared being by myself, and the more healthier relationships I was able to attract into my life.
I started doing what I called “Dates with myself“. Regardless my external relationship status, I would schedule time with myself. I would literally take myself out on a date and spend that time totally focused on myself. It’s my time. We spend so much time and energy focused on others that we forget to recharge the source of that energy. It is only when you are well that you can have the energy and internal resources to make a positive difference and help others. This is a simple, yet powerful concept that can dramatically improve your wellbeing, effectiveness and mental health.
Before attempting a ‘date with yourself’, Here are a few things to keep in mind:
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- Reading Date - Go to a trendy café or find a comfortable place at home and read something inspirational for an hour or more. Have some hot herbal tea, cut up some fruits or crackers with cheese. Fully enjoy the experience.
- Forgiveness & Gratitude Date - Find a comfortable spot. I like to sit on a bench overlooking the water at sunset, or curled up on the couch in my living room table surrounded by candles.
- Forgive - Write on a journal or loose paper all the things you forgive yourself for. We tend to be very harsh on ourselves, and voluntarily blame ourselves internally for failures, failures of achievement, failures to action, etc. Take this time to forgive yourself for all the harsh things said, for mistreatment of your health, etc.
- Gratitude - List out all the things in your life you are thankful for. This is my favorite thing to do.
- Admiration - List out all the things that others admire about you. What are some things they’d say that you are good at or have natural abilities towards? Notice that I wanted you to pretend to be another person looking at yourself. We tend to blank on this question when asking ourselves directly.
- Musical Date - Take in a live concert after treating yourself to a healthy and satisfying meal. For example, every Thursday, I used to make myself a great raw vegetarian meal and then go to the Symphony. Did you know that you could get cheap single tickets in the first 4 rows? In Seattle, it’s $15 at Seattle Symphony. Most people are not aware of this. It’s not advertised.
Another idea is going to a jazz club or a show. Talk to strangers when you are there. You’ll find the experience much more rewarding. - Yoga or Meditation Date - Take a group yoga or meditation class at a local gym, community center, or temple. I used to do drop in classes at YMCA. They are $10 a class for non-members. After class, jump into the Jacuzzi if there is one. Come home, enjoy a light meal and relax for the evening.
- Outdoors Date - Go for a long walk in an area that interests you. Go to a park, go camping, go for a long drive. I like to spend an hour on Sundays walking through the ‘pike place’ market (local farmer’s market) with my dog, Tommy. I enjoy seeing all the tourists, fresh produce and the energy in the market. I also like to walk along the waterfront. It’s a good idea to bring a book and some water with you. Wander without rushing.
- Art & Culture - Go to an art gallery opening or a local museum. In Seattle, we have the art walk the first Thursday of every month where many galleries are open into the night. It’s very festive and inspiring, and I especially enjoy the people watching.
Here are some ideas for ‘dates with yourself’. You can intermix several activities below into one date:
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I had to learn the art of letting go. It wasn’t always easy coming from an environment and many years of experiences where I passed everything by the committee for review and approval instead of just making my own decisions and going for it. I have learned to choose to believe what I believe because of my own experiences and expectations and not because of the perceptions of others. This was a radical departure, trust me. This also was and is an act that takes courage and to some degree mental retraining for most of us, but it can be done.
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if you choose to dwell on lack, you will manifest more lack. If you choose to believe in scarcity, then scarcity will show up. Your thoughts are the most significant and most powerful indicators of how your life will show up.
George Orwell: Politics and the English Language
Tags: anthropology, archaism, culture, efficiency, essay, george_orwell, guide, history, imported, language, politics, tips, writing on 2007-11-07 and saved by29 people -All Annotations (0) -About
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It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes.
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A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
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5. If a new spirit is to be infused into this old country, there is one thorny and contentious reform which must be tackled, and that is the humanization and galvanization of the B.B.C. Timidity here will bespeak canker and atrophy of the soul. The heart of Britain may be sound and of strong beat, for instance, but the British lion's roar at present is like that of Bottom in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream — as gentle as any sucking dove. A virile new Britain cannot continue indefinitely to be traduced in the eyes or rather ears, of the world by the effete languors of Langham Place, brazenly masquerading as ‘standard English’. When the Voice of Britain is heard at nine o'clock, better far and infinitely less ludicrous to hear aitches honestly dropped than the present priggish, inflated, inhibited, school-ma'amish arch braying of blameless bashful mewing maidens!
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DYING METAPHORS. A newly invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image, while on the other hand a metaphor which is technically ‘dead’ (e. g. iron resolution) has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word and can generally be used without loss of vividness. But in between these two classes there is a huge dump of worn-out metaphors which have lost all evocative power and are merely used because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves. Examples are: Ring the changes on, take up the cudgel for, toe the line, ride roughshod over, stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, no axe to grind, grist to the mill, fishing in troubled waters, on the order of the day, Achilles’ heel, swan song, hotbed. Many of these are used without knowledge of their meaning (what is a ‘rift’, for instance?), and incompatible metaphors are frequently mixed, a sure sign that the writer is not interested in what he is saying. Some metaphors now current have been twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware of the fact. For example, toe the line is sometimes written as tow the line. Another example is the hammer and the anvil, now always used with the implication that the anvil gets the worst of it. In real life it is always the anvil that breaks the hammer, never the other way about: a writer who stopped to think what he was saying would avoid perverting the original phrase.
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PRETENTIOUS DICTION. Words like phenomenon, element, individual (as noun), objective, categorical, effective, virtual, basic, primary, promote, constitute, exhibit, exploit, utilize, eliminate, liquidate, are used to dress up a simple statement and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgements. Adjectives like epoch-making, epic, historic, unforgettable, triumphant, age-old, inevitable, inexorable, veritable, are used to dignify the sordid process of international politics, while writing that aims at glorifying war usually takes on an archaic colour, its characteristic words being: realm, throne, chariot, mailed fist, trident, sword, shield, buckler, banner, jackboot, clarion. Foreign words and expressions such as cul de sac, ancien regime, deus ex machina, mutatis mutandis, status quo, gleichschaltung, weltanschauung, are used to give an air of culture and elegance. Except for the useful abbreviations i. e., e. g. and etc., there is no real need for any of the hundreds of foreign phrases now current in the English language. Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous, and hundreds of others constantly gain ground from their Anglo-Saxon numbers(1). The jargon peculiar to Marxist writing (hyena, hangman, cannibal, petty bourgeois, these gentry, lackey, flunkey, mad dog, White Guard, etc.) consists largely of words translated from Russian, German, or French; but the normal way of coining a new word is to use Latin or Greek root with the appropriate affix and, where necessary, the size formation. It is often easier to make up words of this kind (deregionalize, impermissible, extramarital, non-fragmentary and so forth) than to think up the English words that will cover one's meaning. The result, in general, is an increase in slovenliness and vagueness.
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MEANINGLESS WORDS. In certain kinds of writing, particularly in art criticism and literary criticism, it is normal to come across long passages which are almost completely lacking in meaning(2). Words like romantic, plastic, values, human, dead, sentimental, natural, vitality, as used in art criticism, are strictly meaningless, in the sense that they not only do not point to any discoverable object, but are hardly ever expected to do so by the reader. When one critic writes, ‘The outstanding feature of Mr. X's work is its living quality’, while another writes, ‘The immediately striking thing about Mr. X's work is its peculiar deadness’, the reader accepts this as a simple difference opinion. If words like black and white were involved, instead of the jargon words dead and living, he would see at once that language was being used in an improper way. Many political words are similarly abused. The word Fascism has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies ‘something not desirable’. The words democracy, socialism, freedom, patriotic, realistic, justice have each of them several different meanings which cannot be reconciled with one another. In the case of a word like democracy, not only is there no agreed definition, but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides. It is almost universally felt that when we call a country democratic we are praising it: consequently the defenders of every kind of regime claim that it is a democracy, and fear that they might have to stop using that word if it were tied down to any one meaning. Words of this kind are often used in a consciously dishonest way. That is, the person who uses them has his own private definition, but allows his hearer to think he means something quite different. Statements like Marshal Petain was a true patriot, The Soviet press is the freest in the world, The Catholic Church is opposed to persecution, are almost always made with intent to deceive. Other words used in variable meanings, in most cases more or less dishonestly, are: class, totalitarian, science, progressive, reactionary, bourgeois, equality.
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In (5), words and meaning have almost parted company. People who write in this manner usually have a general emotional meaning — they dislike one thing and want to express solidarity with another — but they are not interested in the detail of what they are saying.
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A scrupulous writer, in every sentence that he writes, will ask himself at least four questions, thus: What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? And he will probably ask himself two more: Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly? But you are not obliged to go to all this trouble. You can shirk it by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come crowding in. The will construct your sentences for you — even think your thoughts for you, to a certain extent — and at need they will perform the important service of partially concealing your meaning even from yourself. It is at this point that the special connection between politics and the debasement of language becomes clear.
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In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of the political parties. Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism, question-begging and sheer cloudy vagueness. Defenceless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets: this is called pacification. Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called transfer of population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements. Such phraseology is needed if one wants to name things without calling up mental pictures of them. Consider for instance some comfortable English professor defending Russian totalitarianism. He cannot say outright, ‘I believe in killing off your opponents when you can get good results by doing so’. Probably, therefore, he will say something like this:
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‘While freely conceding that the Soviet regime exhibits certain features which the humanitarian may be inclined to deplore, we must, I think, agree that a certain curtailment of the right to political opposition is an unavoidable concomitant of transitional periods, and that the rigors which the Russian people have been called upon to undergo have been amply justified in the sphere of concrete achievement.’
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The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as ‘keeping out of politics’. All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have not sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship.
But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. A bad usage can spread by tradition and imitation even among people who should and do know better. The debased language that I have been discussing is in some ways very convenient. Phrases like a not unjustifiable assumption, leaves much to be desired, would serve no good purpose, a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind, are a continuous temptation, a packet of aspirins always at one's elbow. Look back through this essay, and for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against. By this morning's post I have received a pamphlet dealing with conditions in Germany. The author tells me that he ‘felt impelled’ to write it. I open it at random, and here is almost the first sentence I see: ‘[The Allies] have an opportunity not only of achieving a radical transformation of Germany's social and political structure in such a way as to avoid a nationalistic reaction in Germany itself, but at the same time of laying the foundations of a co-operative and unified Europe.’ You see, he ‘feels impelled’ to write — feels, presumably, that he has something new to say — and yet his words, like cavalry horses answering the bugle, group themselves automatically into the familiar dreary pattern. This invasion of one's mind by ready-made phrases (lay the foundations, achieve a radical transformation) can only be prevented if one is constantly on guard against them, and every such phrase anaesthetizes a portion of one's brain.
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I have not here been considering the literary use of language, but merely language as an instrument for expressing and not for concealing or preventing thought. Stuart Chase and others have come near to claiming that all abstract words are meaningless, and have used this as a pretext for advocating a kind of political quietism. Since you don't know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism? One need not swallow such absurdities as this, but one ought to recognise that the present political chaos is connected with the decay of language, and that one can probably bring about some improvement by starting at the verbal end. If you simplify your English, you are freed from the worst follies of orthodoxy. You cannot speak any of the necessary dialects, and when you make a stupid remark its stupidity will be obvious, even to yourself. Political language — and with variations this is true of all political parties, from Conservatives to Anarchists — is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind. One cannot change this all in a moment, but one can at least change one's own habits, and from time to time one can even, if one jeers loudly enough, send some worn-out and useless phrase — some jackboot, Achilles’ heel, hotbed, melting pot, acid test, veritable inferno, or other lump of verbal refuse — into the dustbin where it belongs.
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Stephen King´s Top 7 Tips for Becoming a Better Writer
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Wanted to share Kurt Vonnegut’s 8 rules for fiction.
Eight rules for writing fiction:
1. Use the time of a total stranger in such a way that he or she will not feel the time was wasted.
2. Give the reader at least one character he or she can root for.
3. Every character should want something, even if it is only a glass of water.
4. Every sentence must do one of two things — reveal character or advance the action.
5. Start as close to the end as possible.
6. Be a sadist. Now matter how sweet and innocent your leading characters, make awful things happen to them — in order that the reader may see what they are made of.
7. Write to please just one person. If you open a window and make love to the world, so to speak, your story will get pneumonia.
8. Give your readers as much information as possible as soon as possible. To heck with suspense. Readers should have such complete understanding of what is going on, where and why, that they could finish the story themselves, should cockroaches eat the last few pages.
Effective Writing - George Orwell
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- http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_politpost by darorme on 2007-11-07
---It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes.
---A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
---DYING METAPHORS. A newly invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image, while on the other hand a metaphor which is technically ‘dead’ (e. g. iron resolution) has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word and can generally be used without loss of vividness. But in between these two classes there is a huge dump of worn-out metaphors which have lost all evocative power and are merely used because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves. Examples are: Ring the changes on, take up the cudgel for, toe the line, ride roughshod over, stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, no axe to grind, grist to the mill, fishing in troubled waters, on the order of the day, Achilles’ heel, swan song, hotbed. Many of these are used without knowledge of their meaning (what is a ‘rift’, for instance?), and incompatible metaphors are frequently mixed, a sure sign that the writer is not interested in what he is saying. Some metaphors now current have been twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware of the fact. For example, toe the line is sometimes written as tow the line. Another example is the hammer and the anvil, now always used with the implication that the anv
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By following Orwell’s 5 rules for effective writing, you’ll distinguish yourself from competitors and clearly communicate your ideas.
1. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.
This sounds easy, but in practice is incredibly difficult. Phrases such as toe the line, ride roughshod over, stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, an axe to grind, Achilles’ heel, swan song, and hotbed come to mind quickly and feel comforting and melodic.
For this exact reason they must be avoided. Common phrases have become so comfortable that they create no emotional response. Take the time to invent fresh, powerful images.
2. Never use a long word where a short one will do.
Long words don’t make you sound intelligent unless used skillfully. In the wrong situation they’ll have the opposite effect, making you sound pretentious and arrogant. They’re also less likely to be understood and more awkward to read.
When Hemingway was criticized by Faulkner for his limited word choice he replied:
Poor Faulkner. Does he really think big emotions come from big words? He thinks I don’t know the ten-dollar words. I know them all right. But there are older and simpler and better words, and those are the ones I use.
3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
Great literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree (Ezra Pound). Accordingly, any words that don’t contribute meaning to a passage dilute its power. Less is always better. Always.
4. Never use the passive where you can use the active.
This one is frequently broken, probably because many people don’t know the difference between active and passive verbs. I didn’t myself until a few months ago. Here is an example that makes it easy to understand:
The man was bitten by the dog. (passive)The dog bit the man. (active).The active is better because it’s shorter and more forceful.
5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
This is tricky because much of the writing published on the internet is highly technical. If possible, remain accessible to the average reader. If your audience is highly specialized this is a judgment call. You don’t want to drag on with unnecessary explanation, but try to help people understand what you’re writing about. You want your ideas to spread right?
6. Break any of these rules sooner than saying anything outright barbarous.
This bonus rule is a catch all. Above all, be sure to use common sense.These rules are easy to memorize but difficult to apply. Although I’ve edited this piece a dozen times I’m sure it contains imperfections. But trust me, it’s much better now than it was initially. The key is effort. Good writing matters, probably more than you think.
I hope you find these rules helpful, and through their application we’re able to understand each other a little bit better. If you enjoyed this post, be sure to read Orwell’s original essay. It contains many helpful examples and is, of course, a pleasure to read.
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I read this essay over 10 years ago. It changed the way I viewed the writing process. Lazy (’foolish’ according to Orwell) thinking if allowed to become lazy writing encourages even lazier thinking.
I think it was C.S. Lewis who said (echoing Einstein), and I paraphrase: If you can’t explain it to a 12 year old then you have not understood the concept. And how better to know you understand, than to put fingers to keyboard!
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Strunk & White is more accepting of passive voice. It recommends the passive voice when the object of a sentence is, more broadly speaking, the subject. For instance if you are writing an essay about acorns, you could rightly say, “Acorns are buried by industrious squirrels.”
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asdf is missing the point. Writing well is not always about writing original, compelling prose. It is just as much the need to communicate effectively. If you write a memo or an email or a blog entry, you want to follow this advice. This isn’t the kind of writing that wins raves, yet is written every day.
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My dear,
These rules are universal like the fact that all of us should speak truth. Still, they are repeated time and again just because we tend to ignore it.
This is for the simple reason that we ourselves do not understand what we are perceiving through our senses.
And everytime we need some big name to tell us small things! This is the irony of the situation. You used Orwell to tell the simple truth with big name.
Thanks for this interesting reading. I wish people really follow it rather than using it as a quote to show their intelligence. -
If you want to be proven right: do better. If you cannot: read better material. What use is a life spent lamenting the poor quality of others’ work when your own cannot match them?
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@George
Here is worthwhile advice to you:
Don’t use the word ‘quite’ in every other sentence, especially when you are criticizing someone. It looks snobbish and stupid.
When you communicate a point, be direct.
Throw out all the quites, almosts, evens, pretty muches and their friends too. Write with authority and people will believe you.
See rule #3.
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My 2 cents:
Avoid the use of automatic and superlative adverbs - these words (ex from the article - ‘incredibly’, ‘highly’), break rules #3 and #1, adding unnecessary and meaningless mass to your writing.
A personal rule: never describe something as ‘ironic’ or refer to ‘irony’ unless you take A FULL 30 SECONDS to evaluate the truth of that description. Actual irony is rare - paradox, coincidence, and the unfortunate are far more often the true circumstances to be thoughtlessly given the ‘irony’ title. This last sentence was brought to you by the passive voice.
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This reminds me of David Bourland’s work on E-prime (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-prime). Bourland suggest that we should drop the verb “to be” in all its forms. This removes the passive voice and force the writing to be more precise.
For example, writing “the rose is red” lacks clarity. Roses don’t inhibit “red” in themselves. Color is an experience in the mind of the observer. To sharpen your message you can instead write “The rose appear red to me”. This gives information that we talk about a subjective experience.
Be sure to check out the link I provided for more details.
5 Reasons Why You Should Simplify What You Say, and How to Do It
Tags: communication, george_orwell, imported, kurt_vonnegut, story, writing on 2007-11-07 and saved by5 people -All Annotations (2) -About
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“You can have brilliant ideas, but if you can’t get them across, your ideas won’t get you anywhere”.
Lee IacoccaOne of the trickier things about social skills is to get your message across.
One reason why people have difficulty with this is because they use more words than needed.
I know. I have done so too many times to count. I keep babbling on and on about something for far too long and fill the air with too many words.
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How do you keep your wordcount down? I think you just have to try to be more aware and alert. Think about what you are about to say before it whooshes out of your mouth. Focus on what you really want to convey.
Babbling on too much is, at least in my opinion, something that often comes from being too focused inward. Being too focused on yourself in a conversation.
If you instead focus more outward you’ll be less self-conscious. This reduces nervous and slightly nonsensical babbling.
And if you focus more outward, on the people you are talking to and less on your own glorious voice and golden words you’ll be more aware of what you are saying and how the conversation is going. If you focus on the other guy/gal you’ll be more focused on getting through and more attentive to the reactions you bring out.
So, stay aware of what you want to convey. And focus much of your attention outward to reduce babbling and to be more alert to what’s happening and how your message comes across. Now, on to reason number one why you should keep it simple.
1. Clarity.
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Actually, when people say too much it’s usually because they are afraid of being misunderstood. They can’t resist adding qualifiers to hedge their statements because they’re hyper-aware of the listener taking their remarks the wrong way. Ego? Really? I don’t think so.
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It’s ironic how wordy the article is on a topic about simplifying your speech.
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5 Reasons Why You Should Simplify Your Blog Post, and How to Do It
1.) Spell Check (forces you to rethink the Genesis Thought)
2.) Talk less about “why” and get to the “how” quicker:
- type out your blog post
- delete it
- retype it at 3 AM from memory
- finally, cut the word count in half
- shake, don’t stir3.) It’s not a conversation; it’s about distilling mental images down to a base material that is easy enough for strangers to use at cocktail parties; not at the book of the month club.
4.) 3 reasons are more than enough.
5.) Teach don’t preach.
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The ambition that inspired the article is great. So are the reasons, but maybe the “how to” is a little bit light? Just a thought. After all, we’ve all had that experience when we know we’ve just talked too much, bored the audience, confused our listener, and so on. The sell on why it’s worth simplifying seems like it could be pretty short. Learning to focus, though, is something one could write a book about… without over-explaining.
“How to Win Friends and Influence People,” by the way, gives several good tips on how to converse with people in a way that impresses (a great deal of which involves letting the other person do most of the talking). There are also language tips. For instance, you come across as smarter when you use words that are not “latinate,” which runs against common belief.
Another great tip is to take a look at story telling sites (there are professional storytellers) and study, as somebody suggested, joke telling. Both will give you an idea of how to keep the thread of conversation taut.
You might also keep a stopwatch running in your head and imagine that, each time you speak, you have only so much time you’re allowed to flap your gums and then it’s time to stop. Can you get in what you want to say in that time? The more this becomes a habit, the better you’ll get. Some of just conversing simply just comes from the realization that you don’t own the conversation. You owe the other people involved time for their own input.
That means not interrupting. That means asking questions. That means actually absorbing the details and listening for cues that lay open other opportunities for more questions (not an interrogation, but genuine interest), and so on.
You get the picture.
Inhabitat » A BRILLIANT STORAGE IDEA: Staircase Drawers
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