Anatomy




Nerves are categorized into three groups based on the direction that signals are conducted:



• Afferent nerves conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system, for example from the mechanoreceptors in skin.
• Efferent nerves conduct signals from the central nervous system along motor neurons to their target muscles and glands.
• Mixed nerves contain both afferent and efferent axons, and thus conduct both incoming sensory information and outgoing muscle commands in the same bundle.
• Spinal nerves innervate much of the body, and connect through the spinal column to the spinal cord. They are given letter-number designations according to the vertebra through which they connect to the spinal column.
• Cranial nerves innervate parts of the head, and connect directly to the brainstem. They are typically assigned Roman numerals from 1 to 12, although cranial nerve zero is sometimes included. In addition, cranial nerves have descriptive names.Each nerve is covered externally by a dense sheath of connective tissue, the epineurium. Underlying this is a layer of flat cells, the perineurium, which forms a complete sleeve around a bundle of axons. Perineurial septae extend into the nerve and subdivide it into several bundles of fibers. Surrounding each such fibre is the endoneurium. This forms an unbroken tube which extends from the surface of the spinal cord to the level at which the axon synapses with its muscle fibers, or ends in sensory receptors. The endoneurium consists of an inner sleeve of material called the glycocalyx and an outer, delicate, meshwork of collagen fibers. Nerves are bundled along with blood vessels, since the neurons of a nerve have fairly high energy requirements.



Within the endoneurium, the individual nerve fibers are surrounded by a low protein liquid called endoneurial fluid. The endoneurium has properties analogous to the blood-brain barrier, in that it prevents certain molecules from crossing from the blood into the endoneurial fluid. In this respect, endoneurial fluid is similar to cerebro-spinal fluid in the central nervous system. During the development of nerve edema from nerve irritation or (injury), the amount of endoneurial fluid may increase at the site of irritation. This increase in fluid can be visualized using Magnetic resonance neurography, and thus MR neurography can identify nerve irritation and/or injury.

Physiology




A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (known as nerve impulses or action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.^[1][2]




Nerves can be categorized into two groups based on function:



• Sensory nerves conduct sensory information from their receptors to the central nervous system, where the information is then processed. Thus they are synonymous with afferent nerves.
• Motor nerves conduct signals from the central nervous system to muscles. Thus they are synonymous with efferent nerves.^[1][2]



[edit] Clinical importance




Damage to nerves can be caused by physical injury, swelling (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome), autoimmune diseases (e.g. Guillain-Barré syndrome), infection (neuritis), diabetes or failure of the blood vessels surrounding the nerve. A pinched nerve occurs when pressure is placed on a nerve, usually from swelling due to an injury or pregnancy. Nerve damage or pinched nerves are usually accompanied by pain, numbness, weakness, or paralysis. Patients may feel these symptoms in areas far from the actual site of damage, a phenomenon called referred pain. Referred pain occurs because when a nerve is damaged, signalling is defective from all parts of the area from which the nerve receives input, not just the site of the damage. Neurologists usually diagnose disorders of the nerves by a physical examination, including the testing of reflexes, walking and other directed movements, muscle weakness, proprioception, and the sense of touch. This initial exam can be followed with tests such as nerve conduction study and electromyography (EMG).

Scientists debate whether specific activities release measurable levels of endorphins. Much of the current data comes from animal models which may not be relevant to humans. The studies that do involve humans often measure endorphin plasma levels, which do not necessarily correlate with levels in the central nervous system. Other studies use a blanket opioid antagonist (usually naloxone) to indirectly measure the release of endorphins by observing the changes that occur when any endorphin activity that might be present is blocked.

Capsaicin (the active chemical in red chili peppers) also has been shown to stimulate endorphin release.^[11] Topical capsaicin has been used as a treatment for certain types of chronic pain.

Runner's high




Another widely publicized effect of endorphin production is the so-called "runner's high", which is said to occur when strenuous exercise takes a person over a threshold that activates endorphin production. Endorphins are released during long, continuous workouts, when the level of intensity is between moderate and high, and breathing is difficult. This also corresponds with the time that muscles use up their stored glycogen. During a release of endorphins the person may be exposed to bodily harm from strenuous bodily functions after going past their body's physical limit. They may be able to keep running despite pain, and thus possibly come to bodily harm from endorphin release. Workouts that are most likely to produce endorphins to the extent of damage at the body's physical limit include, boxing, running, wrestling, parkour, swimming, cross-country skiing, long distance rowing, cycling, weight lifting, aerobics, a martial art such as muay thai, soccer, basketball, rugby, lacrosse, hockey, tennis, American football and other strenuous exercises.




However, some scientists question the mechanisms at work, their research possibly demonstrating the high comes from completing a challenge rather than as a result of exertion.^[12] Studies in the early 1980s cast doubt on the relationship between endorphins and the runner's high for several reasons:



• The first was that when an antagonist (pharmacological agent that blocks the action for the substance under study) was infused (e.g. naloxone) or ingested (naltrexone) the same changes in mood state occurred as when the person exercised with no blocker.
• A study in 2003 by Georgia Tech found that runner's high might be caused by the release of another naturally produced chemical, anandamide. Anandamide is similar to the active endocannabinoid anandamide.^[13][14] The authors suggest that the body produces this chemical to deal with prolonged stress and pain from strenuous exercise, similar to the original theory involving endorphins. However, the release of anandamide was not reported with the cognitive effects of the runner’s high; this suggests that anandamide release may not be significantly related to runner's high.^[14]



In 2008, researchers in Germany reported that the myth of the runner's high was not a myth but was in fact true. Using PET scans combined with recently available chemicals that reveal endorphins in the brain, they were able to compare runners’ brains before and after a run.^[15] The runners the researchers recruited were told that the opioid receptors in their brains were being studied, and did not realize that their endorphin levels were being studied in regard to the runner's high.




The participants were scanned and received psychological tests before and after a two-hour run. Data received from the study showed endorphins were produced during the exercise and were attaching themselves to areas of the brain associated with emotions (limbic and prefrontal areas).^[16]




An investigated possibility is that a molecule, such as anandamide carries endorphins through the blood-brain barrier, as endorphins are too large to cross the BBB by themselves. If not, endorphins may be produced in the brain itself.




It is now suggested by many that endorphins are some of the many chemicals that contribute to runner's high; other candidates include epinephrine, serotonin, dopamine and more.




[edit] Relaxation




In 2003, clinical researchers reported that profound relaxation in a float tank triggers the production of endorphins.^[17] This explains the pain relief experienced during float sessions ^[18]--Profstandwellback (talk) 12:44, 7 October 2009 (UTC)




[edit] Acupuncture




In 1999, clinical researchers reported that inserting acupuncture needles into specific body points triggers the production of endorphins.^[19][20] In another study, higher levels of endorphins were found in cerebrospinal fluid after patients underwent acupuncture.^[21] In addition, naloxone appeared to block acupuncture’s pain-relieving effects. However, skeptics^[who?] say that not all studies point to that conclusion,^[22] and that in a trial of chronic pain patients, endorphins did not produce long-lasting relief. Endorphins may be released during low levels of pain and physical stimulation when it lasts over 30 minutes. Questions remain as to whether the prolonged low level of pain stimulation as in Capsaicin, acupuncture and running or physical activity alone are the threshold that activates endorphin release.

References







1. ^ ^{a b} "The Reality of the "Runner's High"". UPMC Sports Medicine. University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences. http://www.sportsmedicine.upmc.com/MySportRunningHigh.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
2. ^ "'Sexercise' yourself into shape". Health. BBC News. 2006-02-11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4703166.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
3. ^ "Get more than zeds in bed -". Mind & body magazine - NHS Direct. UK National Health Service. http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?articleId=2504. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
4. ^ Kjellgren A, Sundequist U, et al. "Effects of flotation-REST on muscle tension pain". Pain Research and Management 6 (4): 181-9
5. ^ ^{a b} Goldstein A, Lowery PJ (September 1975). "Effect of the opiate antagonist naloxone on body temperature in rats". Life sciences 17 (6): 927–31. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(75)90445-2. PMID 1195988. 
6. ^ "Role of endorphins discovered". PBS Online: A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries. Public Broadcasting System. 1998-01-01. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dh75en.html. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
7. ^ Hughes J, Smith T, Kosterlitz H, Fothergill L, Morgan B, Morris H (1975). "Identification of two related pentapeptides from the brain with potent opiate agonist activity". Nature 258 (5536): 577–80. doi:10.1038/258577a0. PMID 1207728. 
8. ^ Simantov R, Snyder S (1976). "Morphine-like peptides in mammalian brain: isolation, structure elucidation, and interactions with the opiate receptor". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 73 (7): 2515–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.73.7.2515. PMID 1065904. 
9. ^ Poeaknapo C, Schmidt J, Brandsch M, Dräger B, Zenk MH (September 2004). "Endogenous formation of morphine in human cells". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (39): 14091–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0405430101. PMID 15383669. 
10. ^ Kream RM, Stefano GB (October 2006). "De novo biosynthesis of morphine in animal cells: an evidence-based model". Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research 12 (10): RA207–19. PMID 17006413. http://www.medscimonit.com/fulltxt.php?ICID=459203. 
11. ^ Klosterman L (2005-11-01). "Endorphins". Chronogram. Luminary Publishing, Inc.. http://www.chronogram.com/issue/2005/11/wholeliving/index.php. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
12. ^ Hinton E, Taylor S (1986). "Does placebo response mediate runner's high?". Percept Mot Skills 62 (3): 789–90. PMID 3725516. 
13. ^ "Study links marijuana buzz to 'runner's high'". CNN.com. 2004-01-11. http://edition.cnn.com/2004/HEALTH/01/11/marijuana.exercise.reut/. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
14. ^ ^{a b} Sparling PB, Giuffrida A, Piomelli D, Rosskopf L, Dietrich A (December 2003). "Exercise activates the endocannabinoid system". Neuroreport 14 (17): 2209–11. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000097048.56589.47. PMID 14625449. 
15. ^ Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR (February 2008). "The Runner's High: Opioidergic Mechanisms in the Human Brain". Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991) 18: 2523. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn013. PMID 18296435. 
16. ^ Kolata G (2008-03-27). "Yes, Running Can Make You High". Health. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/health/nutrition/27best.html?ei=5087&em=&en=94a1816b72ae11fb&ex=1206763200&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1206641040-ZO2PvU1EJBIrKDDUHDVBFw. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
17. ^ Anette Kjellgren, 2003, The experience of floatation REST (restricted Environmental stimulation technique), subjective stress and pain, Goteborg University Sweden,
18. ^ Kjellgren A, Sundequist U, et al. "Effects of flotation-REST on muscle tension pain". Pain Research and Management 6 (4): 181-9
19. ^ Johnson C (1999-06-04). "Acupuncture works on endorphins". News in Science, ABC Science Online. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s27924.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-15. 
20. ^ Napadow V, Ahn A, Longhurst J, Lao L, Stener-Victorin E, Harris R, Langevin HM (September 2008). "The status and future of acupuncture clinical research". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) 14 (7): 861–9. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.SAR-3. PMID 18803495. 
21. ^ Clement-Jones V, McLoughlin L, Tomlin S, Besser G, Rees L, Wen H (1980). "Increased beta-endorphin but not met-enkephalin levels in human cerebrospinal fluid after acupuncture for recurrent pain". Lancet 2 (8201): 946–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(80)92106-6. PMID 6107591. 
22. ^ Kenyon J, Knight C, Wells C (1983). "Randomised double-blind trial on the immediate effects of naloxone on classical Chinese acupuncture therapy for chronic pain". Acupunct Electrother Res 8 (1): 17–24. PMID 6135300.

Fandom

Thanks to large number of films and video games, the idea of a zombie apocalypse has entered the mainstream and there have been efforts by many fans to prepare for the hypothetical future zombie apocalypse. Efforts include creating weapons,^[11] selling posters to inform people on how to survive a zombie outbreak,^[12] and creating websites "documenting" zombie attacks.^{[citation needed]}

At Goucher College students invented the tag game Humans vs. Zombies where human "survivors" armed with NERF guns face off against designated "zombies." The game has spread widely, to many schools primarily in the United States, but has caused some controversy in light of the 2007 shooting at Virginia Tech and the 2008 shooting at Northern Illinois, with some feeling the game belittles how dangerous guns can be.^[13]

Some notable individuals have discussed what they would do in a zombie apocalypse. Mixed martial artist Nick Denis said "I plan on getting, one, an aluminum bat [and], two, a rope ladder, so if I live in the second level of an apartment, that’d be my exit, in and out the window. And then I’d like to get chainmail. No zombie can bite through that. That’d be a good start for my bag."^[14] Adam Cayton-Holland said he tried to practice firing a gun: "in order to prove my worth to the denizens of whatever abandoned hovel I will inevitably hole up in during the zombie attack, I should learn how to fire me a flintlock."^[15]

In an interview with Ain't it Cool News, The Zombie Survival Guide author Max Brooks commented on the fans of zombie apocalypses: "I don't know what's scarier, the fact that zombies could rise or the fact there are actually people out there that can't wait for it to happen. So they can just start loading up with guns and get on their motorcycles..." Brooks also compared the interest in surviving a zombie apocalypse to people preparing for a Soviet invasion of America in the 1980s after the film Red Dawn was released.^[16]

Examples




[edit] Films



• Night of the Living Dead (1968), Dawn of the Dead (1978), Day of the Dead (1985), Land of the Dead (2005), and Diary of the Dead (2008) by George Romero.^[17]
• Zombi 2 (1979) starts with a smaller group of zombies, which expands to engulf a city.^[18] Not only is this movie popular^[19] and considered "essential viewing"^[20] but it also helped director Lucio Fulci break into the international market.^[21]
• 28 Days Later, and its sequel 28 Weeks Later, in which a man-made "rage" virus is unleashed at first in Britain, and then continental Europe.^[22][23]
• Undead (2003), set in Australia, features a group of survivors in a village infected with zombies. Aliens clean up the infection but it gets out of the village and engulfs the world.^{[24][clarification needed]}
• Dawn of the Dead (2004)^[25]
• The Zombie Diaries (2006), a British made movie in which a virus creates a plague of zombies.^[26]
• City of Rott (2006). This animated movie concerns an old man, Fred, who uses his walker to kill legions of zombies. They traverse a metropolis, overtaken by the walking dead, in search of food, water, and new shoes.^[27]
• Fido (2006), a zombie comedy set in the 1950s, where humanity is saved from a zombie apocalypse by a corporation who turns zombies into personal servants.^[28]
• Resident Evil: Extinction (2007): a virus infects most of the Earth's population, turning them into zombies. The few survivors move away in armored groups, or hide underground.^[29]
• Planet Terror (2007), one of the two films in Grindhouse where a biochemical agent causes a worldwide zombie infection.^[30][31][32]
• Zombieland (2009): America is ravaged by a zombie plague, but a lone band attempts to survive in an amusement park.^[33]

Comics



• The Deadworld comic series by Stuart Kerr and Ralph Griffith, which began in 1987.^[34][35]
• The comic series The Walking Dead by Robert Kirkman, beginning in 2003, chronicles the story of survivors in a world overrun by zombies.^[36]
• The 2005 comic series Marvel Zombies and its sequels: Marvel Zombies: Dead Days, Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness, Marvel Zombies 2, Marvel Zombies 3.^[37]
• The Japanese manga series Highschool of the Dead, beginning in 2006, features a group of Japanese high school students caught in the middle of a zombie apocalypse.^[38]
• The 2008 webcomic The Black Cherry Bombshells by Johnny Zito and Tony Trov and illustrated by Sacha Borisich, where all the men in the world are turned into zombies.^[39]
• Max Brooks' 2006 novel World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War details humanity's efforts to defeat a worldwide zombie apocalypse.^[40][41]
• David Wellington's zombie apocalypse trilogy: Monster Island (2004), Monster Nation (2005), and Monster Planet (2005).^[42]
• The 2006 novel Cell by Stephen King, features people being made into zombies through a cell phone signal that "pulses" them into zombies with supernatural powers.^[43]
• The 2009 novel The Forest of Hands and Teeth by Carrie Ryan is set over 100 years after the zombie apocalypse in an isolated village surrounded by a forest full of zombies.^[44]
• The 2009 novel Pride and Prejudice and Zombies by Seth Grahame-Smith combines Jane Austen's classic 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice with elements of modern zombie fiction.^[45]
• Masters of Horror, episode "Dance of the Dead" (2005), directed by Tobe Hooper, features a manmade virus causing a zombie outbreak after World War III.^[46]
• Dead Set (2008) involves a zombie outbreak and the real television show Big Brother UK.^[47]
• The 2007 multiplayer Half-Life 2 modification Zombie Master pitting human players against a horde of zombies.^[48]
• The 2007 multiplayer Source modification Zombie Panic that features a human and a player-controlled zombie team fighting against each other in a zombie apocalypse.^[49][50]
• The 2008 PlayStation Network game The Last Guy, where a player attempts to save survivors from zombies and other creatures.^[51]
• The 2008 video game Left 4 Dead, and its sequel Left 4 Dead 2, a co-operative, survival horror, first-person shooter where a rabies-like pathogen has infected most of humanity except for a few survivors.^[6]
• The 2009 game OneChanbara: Bikini Samurai Squad where two sisters fight against a zombie infested Tokyo.^[52]

Music



• The zombie parody of The Beatles, the Zombeatles, began in 2006 with the song Hard Day's Night Of The Living Dead and are set in a world where the zombies have eaten all the remaining humans.^[53]
• Technical death metal band Brain Drill's 2008 album Apocalyptic Feasting has cover art and songs ("Consumed by the Dead" and the title track^[54]) depicting a zombie apocalypse.
• The 2008 Metallica music video for the song All Nightmare Long features the Soviet Union using a spore found after the Tunguska event on the United States to create an army of zombies to destroy the US from the inside out.^[55]
• How To Survive A Zombie Apocalypse - A Seminar that premiered at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 2009 that teaches all the necessary skills to survive a zombie apocalypse.^[56]
• List of video games featuring zombies
• List of zombie films
• List of zombie novels
• Xombie, Flash cartoons by James Farr
• Zombie
• Zombie Squad, a non-profit charitable organization that uses an upcoming zombie apocalypse as its shtick
• Zombies in popular culture

References







1. ^ ^{a b} Brian Cronin (December 3rd, 2008). "John Seavey’s Storytelling Engines: George Romero’s “Dead” Films". Comic Book Resources. http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2008/12/03/john-seaveys-storytelling-engines-george-romeros-dead-films/. Retrieved 4 December 2008. 
2. ^ ^{a b c} Todd Kenreck (November 17, 2008). "Surviving a zombie apocalypse: 'Left 4 Dead' writer talks about breathing life into zombie genre". Video game review. msnbc. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27770863/. Retrieved 3 December 2008. 
3. ^ Daily, Patrick. "Max Brooks". Chicago Reader. http://events.chicagoreader.com/events/Event?oid=852597. Retrieved October 28, 2008. 
4. ^ Josh Levin (March 24, 2004). "Dead Run". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2097751/. Retrieved 4 December 2008. 
5. ^ "When Zombies Attack!: Mathematical Modelling of an Outbreak of Zombie Infection", by Philip Munz, Ioan Hudea, Joe Imad and Robert J, Smith?. In Infectious Disease Modelling Research Progress, eds. J.M. Tchuenche and C. Chiyaka, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 133-150, 2009. ISBN 978-1-60741-347-9.
6. ^ ^{a b} Christopher T. Fong (December 2, 2008). "Playing Games: Left 4 Dead". Video game review. San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/12/01/DD4R14F77J.DTL. Retrieved 3 December 2008. 
7. ^ Adam Rockoff, Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002), p.35, ISBN 0-7864-1227-5.
8. ^ "Zombie Movies" in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, ed. John Clute and John Grant (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p.1048, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
9. ^ Cripps, Charlotte (November 1, 2006). "Preview: Max Brooks' Festival Of The (Living) Dead! Barbican, London". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/film-and-tv/features/preview-max-brooks-festival-of-the-living-dead-barbican-london-422481.html. Retrieved September 19, 2008.

• ^ "The Zombie Diaries press kit". ZombieDiaries.com. http://www.zombiediaries.com/PressKitZombieDiaries.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-17. 
• ^ City of Rott at the Internet Movie Database
• ^ Pascal. "Fido Movie Review". Movie review. Movies Online. http://www.moviesonline.ca/movie_review_detail.php?id=12254. Retrieved 3 December 2008. 
• ^ Resident Evil: Extinction review, Helen O'Hara, Empire
• ^ "“Grindhouse” double feature a gloriously entertaining contrast". Scene Stealers. April 6, 2007. http://www.scene-stealers.com/print-reviews/grindhouse-double-feature-a-gloriously-entertaining-contrast/. Retrieved 29 August 2009. 
• ^ Quint. "Updated! GRINDHOUSE news from Comic-Con! Snake Plissken to be Tarantino's villain! Plus more!!!". Ain't It Cool News. http://www.aintitcool.com/display.cgi?id=23947. Retrieved 2007-01-06. 
• ^ Gleiberman, Owen (April 4, 2007). "Grindhouse (2007)". Entertainment Weekly. http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20033672,00.html. Retrieved May 12, 2009. 
• ^ Carroll, Larry (2009-03-04). "‘Zombieland’ Monster Maker Has Emma Stone, Mila Kunis Eating Brains". MTV Movies Blog. MTV/Viacom. http://moviesblog.mtv.com/2009/03/04/zombieland-monster-maker-has-emma-stone-mila-kunis-eating-brains/#more-10483. Retrieved 2009-03-29. 
• ^ "Deadworld - Information about the comic series from Caliber Comics". Caliber Comics.. http://calibercomics.com/DEADWORLD/comictitle.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ Jeffrey Bloomer (June 12, 2009). "Zombie-Ridden Post-Apocalyptic Graphic Novel Gets Film Treatment". Paste. http://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2009/06/zombie-ridden-post-apocalyptic-graphic-novel-gets.html. Retrieved 2009-06-20. 
• ^ WEEK OF THE DEAD I: Robert Kirkman, Comic Book Resources, May 19, 2008
• ^ "The Dead Walk the Earth... in Spandex!" Article/Review from I-Mockery
• ^ ""AnimeNewNetwork"". Animenewsnetwork.com. 2009-07-22. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=8592. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ JK Parkin (January 8, 2009). "Zito and Trov on The Black Cherry Bombshells going analog". Interview. Comic Book Resources. http://robot6.comicbookresources.com/2009/01/zito-and-trov-on-the-black-cherry-bombshells-going-analog/. Retrieved 8 January 2009. 
• ^ "Exclusive Interview: Max Brooks on World War Z". Eat My Brains!. October 20, 2006. http://www.eatmybrains.com/showfeature.php?id=55. Retrieved April 26, 2008. 
• ^ Currie, Ron (September 5, 2008). "The End of the World as We Know it". Untitled Books. http://www.untitledbooks.com/pages/features/index.asp?FeaturesID=74. Retrieved September 21, 2008. 
• ^ Richards, Dave (June 23, 2009). "Marvel Zombies: The All-Star Return!". Comic Book Resources. http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&id=21726. Retrieved 6 August 2009. 
• ^ "Cell Review from Pickerington Public Library". Publishers Weekly. 2006-01-02. http://www.supportlibrary.com/nl/br.cfm?re=890&url=%40nl_bookview.cfm%3Fx%3D890%26bn%3D%252A%252E%252E%2520%2522P%2524O%2520Z%255D3%255DI0%2520%2520%250A. Retrieved 2008-08-28. 
• ^ "Zombies Rise in Teen Lit". Pittsburgh Post Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/09146/972132-44.stm. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
• ^ "Pride and Prejudice, Now With Zombies!". 2009-04-02. http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1889075,00.html. Retrieved 2009-04-04. 
• ^ Dance of the Dead at the Internet Movie Database
• ^ "SFX interview with Charlie Brooker". Sfx.co.uk. 2008-10-22. http://www.sfx.co.uk/page/sfx?entry=charlie_brooker_on_dead_set. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ "Zombie Master v1.2.1 Released". Gamers Hell. February 18, 2009. http://www.gamershell.com/news_69654.html. Retrieved 2009-03-05. 
• ^ "A Half-Life 1 & 2 Modification". Zombie Panic. http://www.zombiepanic.org/site/index.php. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ "Zombie Panic: Source mod for Half-Life 2". Mod DB. http://www.moddb.com/mods/zombie-panic-source. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ "The Wednesday 10: 2008 Games You May Have Overlooked". IGN. January 7, 2009. http://ds.ign.com/articles/942/942551p1.html. Retrieved 8 January 2009. 
• ^ Carl Lyon (February 27, 2009). "Onechanbara: Bikini Samurai Squad - Review". Fear.net. http://www.fearnet.com/news/reviews/b14852_onechanbara_bikini_samurai_squad_review.html. Retrieved 2009-03-05. 
• ^ "The ZomBeatles: All You Need Is Brains Tastes Funny". Fan Cinema Today. March 24, 2009. http://fancinematoday.com/2009/03/24/the-zombeatles-all-you-need-is-brains-tastes-funny/. Retrieved 2009-04-09. 
• ^ "Brain Drill lyrics". http://brain-drill.lyrics-text.com/. 
• ^ Burkart, Gregory S. (December 8, 2008). "Behold Metallica's "Nightmare" Zombie Apocalypse!". FEARnet. http://www.fearnet.com/news/b13980_behold_metallicas_nightmare_zombie.html. Retrieved 8 December 2008. 
• ^ http://www.howtosurviveazombieapocalypse.co.uk

• ^ ^{a b} Kim Paffenroth, Gospel of the Living Dead: George Romero's Visions of Hell on Earth. Waco: Baylor University Press, 2006.
• ^ Andy Fliege (December 5, 2008). "Daily Distraction: UItimate Zombie Weapon". Windy Citizen. http://techloop.windycitizen.com/2008/12/05/daily-distraction-uitimate-zombie-weapon. Retrieved 6 December 2008. 
• ^ Michael Harrison (December 05, 2008). "10 Geeky Gifts for Under $10". Wired. http://blog.wired.com/geekdad/2008/12/10-geeky-gifts.html. Retrieved 6 December 2008. 
• ^ "At Goucher, zombies attack — and unnerve". The Baltimore Sun. December 7, 2008. http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/local/bal-md.zombie07dec07,0,1872960.story. Retrieved 8 December 2008. 
• ^ Tony Loiseleur (March 21, 2009). "Sengoku Notebook: ‘King Mo’ Breaks Hand". Sengoku. http://sherdog.com/news/articles/sengoku-notebook-king-mo-breaks-hand-16670. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
• ^ Adam Cayton-Holland (March 18, 2009). "What's So Funny?: Surviving the zombie apocalypse". Denver/Boulder Decider. http://denver.decider.com/articles/whats-so-funny-surviving-the-zombie-apocalypse,25182/. Retrieved 2009-04-02. 
• ^ "Max Brooks and Quint discuss his ZOMBIE SURVIVAL GUIDE follow-up novel, WORLD WAR Z!!!". Interview. Ain't it Cool News. September 13, 2006. http://www.aintitcool.com/node/30038. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 
• ^ Dawn of the Dead at the Internet Movie Database
• ^ "Zombi 2 - The Deuce". Grindhousedatabase.com. 2009-01-15. http://www.grindhousedatabase.com/index.php/Zombi_2. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ Posted by john on June 21, 2008 (2008-06-21). "Horror Movie Review of Zombie (AKA Zombie 2". Esplatter. http://www.esplatter.com/reviews.php?id=23. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ "BHM - Zombi 2". Best-horror-movies.com. http://www.best-horror-movies.com/Zombi-2.html. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
• ^ IMDB - Lucio Fulci - Biography
• ^ Mark Kermode (2007). "A capital place for panic attacks". Guardian News and Media Limited. http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/featurepages/0,,2073292,00.html. Retrieved 2007-05-12. 
• ^ "Stylus Magazine’s Top 10 Zombie Films of All Time". http://www.stylusmagazine.com/articles/movie_review/stylus-magazines-top-10-zombie-films-of-all-time.htm. 
• ^ Undead at the Internet Movie Database
• ^ "TheMovieBoy Review - Dawn of the Dead (2004)". Themovieboy.com. 2004-03-20. http://www.themovieboy.com/reviews/d/04_dawnofthedead.htm.

Websites



• Urban Dead - a free-to-play browser-based multi-player game where you play the survivor or victim of a zombie outbreak in a quarantined city center.
• Zombie apocalypse on Zombiepedia
• What Are Your Chances of Surviving a Zombie Apocalypse?
• Tales of the Zombie War - zombie apocalypse fiction
• "Zombie Movies from Hell". The Gothic Lilith eZine. http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/gothic/Zombie-Movies.html. Retrieved 2007-04-27. 
• 5 Scientific Reasons a Zombie Apocalypse Could Actually Happen by David Wong, TE Sloth
• Military Developing Blood Farming Machine, Zombie Apocalypse Coming Soon by Jesus Diaz on Gizmodo
• 10 games to prepare for the zombie apocalypse by Conrad Zimmerman
• The zombie boom of 2003 by Racer Django

Voodoo Magic

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009)

According to the tenets of Voodoo, a dead person can be revived by a bokor, or sorcerer. Zombies remain under the control of the bokor since they have no will of their own. "Zombi" is also another name of the Vodou snake lwa Damballah Wedo, of Niger-Congo origin; it is akin to the Kikongo word nzambi, which means "god". There also exists within the voudon tradition the zombi astral which is a part of the human soul that is captured by a bokor and used to enhance the bokor's power. The zombi astral is typically kept inside a bottle which the bokor can sell to clients for luck, healing or business success. It is understood that after a time God will take the soul back and so the zombi is a temporary spiritual entity.^[2]

In 1937, while researching folklore in Haiti, Zora Neale Hurston encountered the case of a woman that appeared in a village, and a family claimed she was Felicia Felix-Mentor, a relative who had died and been buried in 1907 at the age of 29. Hurston pursued rumors that the affected persons were given powerful drugs, but she was unable to locate individuals willing to offer much information. She wrote:

Several decades later, Wade Davis, a Harvard ethnobotanist, presented a pharmacological case for zombies in two books, The Serpent and the Rainbow (1985) and Passage of Darkness: The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie (1988). Davis traveled to Haiti in 1982 and, as a result of his investigations, claimed that a living person can be turned into a zombie by two special powders being entered into the blood stream (usually via a wound). The first, coup de poudre (French: 'powder strike'), includes tetrodotoxin (TTX), the poison found in the pufferfish. The second powder is composed of dissociatives such as datura. Together, these powders were said to induce a death-like state in which the victim's will would be entirely subject to that of the bokor. Davis also popularized the story of Clairvius Narcisse, who was claimed to have succumbed to this practice.

Davis' claim has been criticized for a number of scientific inaccuracies. One of these is the unlikely suggestion that Haitian witchdoctors can keep “zombies” in a state of pharmacologically induced trance for many years.^[4] Symptoms of TTX poisoning range from numbness and nausea to paralysis, unconsciousness, and death, but do not include a stiffened gait or a deathlike trance. According to neurologist Terence Hines, the scientific community dismisses tetrodotoxin as the cause of this state, and Davis' assessment of the nature of the reports of Haitian zombies is overly credulous.^[5]

Scottish psychiatrist R. D. Laing further highlighted the link between social and cultural expectations and compulsion, in the context of schizophrenia and other mental illness, suggesting that schizogenesis may account for some of the psychological aspects of zombification.^[6]

[edit] Popular culture

Zombies from George Romero's Night of the Living Dead, a zombie film

Modern zombies, as portrayed in books, films, games, and haunted attractions, are different from both voodoo zombies and those of folklore. Modern zombies are typically depicted in popular culture as mindless, unfeeling monsters with a hunger for human flesh, a prototype established in the 1968 film Night of the Living Dead. Typically, these creatures can sustain damage far beyond that of a normal, living human. Generally these can only be killed by a wound to the head, such as a headshot, or being set on fire, and can pass whatever syndrome that causes their condition onto others through bites or cuts.

Usually, zombies are not depicted as thralls to masters, as in the film White Zombie or the spirit-cult myths. Rather, modern zombies are depicted in mobs, flocks or waves, seeking either flesh to eat or people to kill, and are typically rendered to exhibit signs of physical decomposition such as rotting flesh, discolored eyes, and open wounds, and moving with a slow, shambling gait. They are generally incapable of communication and show no signs of personality or rationality, though George Romero's zombies appear capable of learning and very basic levels of speech as seen in the films Day of the Dead and Land of the Dead.^[7][7]

Zombies are a popular theme for video games, particularly of the first-person shooter and role-playing genre. Some important titles in this area include the Resident Evil series, Dead Rising, House of the Dead and Left 4 Dead.^[8] The multiplayer online role-playing game Urban Dead, a free grid-based browser game where zombies and survivors fight for control of a ruined city, is one of the most popular games of its type, with an estimated 30,680 visits per day. Some games even allow the gamer to play as a zombie such as Stubbs the Zombie in "Rebel Without a Pulse".

Modern zombies are closely tied to the idea of a zombie apocalypse, the collapse of civilization caused by a vast plague of undead. The ideas are now so strongly linked that zombies are often depicted within this context.^{[citation needed]}

There are still significant differences among the depictions of zombies by various media; for one comparison see the contrasts between zombies by Night of the Living Dead authors George A. Romero and John A. Russo as they evolved in the two separate film series that followed. In some zombie apocalypse narratives, such as The Return of the Living Dead and Dead Set, zombies are depicted as being as quick and nimble as the living, a further departure from the established genre stereotype.

Another departure may consist of the image of zombies as loveable creatures, "being tamed, Disneyfied and made suitable for children", as featured in zombie comedy Fido, starring comic actor Billy Connolly as a boy's pet zombie ^[9

Philosophical zombie

A philosophical zombie is a concept used in the philosophy of mind, a field of research which examines the association between conscious thought and the physical world. A philosophical zombie is a hypothetical person who lacks full consciousness but has the biology or behavior of a normal human being; it is used as a null hypothesis in debates regarding the identity of the mind and the brain. The term was coined by philosopher David Chalmers.^[10]

[edit] Social activism

A zombie walk in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Some zombie fans continue the George A. Romero tradition of using zombies as a social commentary. Organized zombie walks, which are primarily promoted through word of mouth, are regularly staged in some countries. Usually they are arranged as a sort of surrealist performance art but they are occasionally put on as part of a unique political protest.^{[11][12][13][14][15]}

[edit] References

• ^ Smith, Neil. "Zombie maestro lays down the lore". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7280793.stm. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 
• ^ *McAlister, Elizabeth. 1995.“A Sorcerer's Bottle: The Visual Art of Magic in Haiti.” In Donald J. Cosentino, ed., Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou. UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1995: 304-321.”
• ^ Hurston, Zora Neale. Dust Tracks on a Road. 2nd Ed. (1942: Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984, p. 205). 
• ^ Booth, W. (1988), “Voodoo Science”, Science, 240: 274-277.
• ^ Hines, Terence; "Zombies and Tetrodotoxin"; Skeptical Inquirer; May/June 2008; Volume 32, Issue 3; Pages 60-62.
• ^ Oswald, Hans Peter (2009 (84 pages)). Vodoo. BoD – Books on Demand. pp. 39. ISBN 3837059049. 
• ^ ^{a b} "Character Profile: Suzaku". absoluteanime.com. http://www.absoluteanime.com/yu_yu_hakusho/suzaku.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-06. 
• ^ Christopher T. Fong (December 2, 2008). "Playing Games: Left 4 Dead". Video game review. San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/12/01/DD4R14F77J.DTL. Retrieved 6 October 2009. 
• ^ The Guardian Weekly of 10 July 2009, p.35
• ^ Chalmers, David. 1995. "Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness", Journal of Consciousness Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 200-219
• ^ Colley, Jenna. "Zombies haunt San Diego streets". signonsandiego.com. http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20070726-9999-1n26zombies.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 
• ^ Kemble, Gary. "They came, they saw, they lurched". abc.net. http://www.abc.net.au/news/arts/articulate/200604/s1627099.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 
• ^ Dalgetty, Greg. "The Dead Walk". Penny Blood Magazine. http://www.pennyblood.com/zombiewalk1.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 
• ^ Horgen, Tom. "Nightlife: 'Dead' ahead". StarTribune.com. http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/dining/31116719.html?elr=KArksD:aDyaEP:kD:aUt:aDyaEP:kD:aUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aULPQL7PQLanchO7DiU. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 
• ^ Dudiak, Zandy. "Guinness certifies record for second annual Zombie Walk". yourpenntrafford.com. http://www.yourpenntrafford.com/penntraffordstar/article/guinness-certifies-record-second-annual-zombie-walk. Retrieved 2009-10-01.

External links









	[hide]Zombies
Overview Zombies in popular culture Zombie apocalypse Zombie walk Movies Video games Literature Discussion of zombies in film at NPR's On The Media

• This page was last modified on 13 October 2009 at 23:37.
• Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
  additional terms may apply.
  See Terms of Use for details.
  
  Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
• Privacy policy
• About Wikipedia
• Disclaimers