This link has been bookmarked by 71 people . It was first bookmarked on 28 Jan 2007, by MICDS Ram.
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09 Jun 15
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Gupta et al. (2007)[121] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest," stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness.
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It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions.
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World Bank (2010)[123] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%.[124] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.[123]
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04 May 15
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The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty, which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.
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The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
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There are currently 192 Parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012)[4] to the Protocol.
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The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
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Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions. China, India, and the United States have all signaled that they will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2 emissions.
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31 Mar 15
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extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it
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(UNFCCC)
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Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997
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into force on 16 February 2005
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implemented t
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rinciple of common but differentiated responsibilities:
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second commitment period was proposed in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine.
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irst commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
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Only certain European states have committed to further CO2 reductions than in the first period.
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Negotiations were held in Paris in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions.
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China, India, and the United States have all signaled that they will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2 emissions.
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007)
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24 Jan 15
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Annex B parties with binding targets in the second period
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Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but not the second
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non-Annex B parties without binding targets
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The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments
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International Emissions Trading (IET)
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Joint Implementation (JI)
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IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short)
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The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects
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The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties
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Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory
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12 Jan 15
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09 Dec 14
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Kyoto Protocol
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The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty, which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.
-
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 Parties to the Protocol.
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The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to 'a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system' (Art. 2).
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The Protocol is based on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. As a result, it sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries, mostly Member States of the European Economic Area
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These targets add up to an average five per cent emissions reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008 to 2012. The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
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A second commitment period was proposed in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment, which would commit only Europe to further CO2 reductions until 2020 but has yet to be ratified.
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Negotiations are currently under way to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions.
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China, India, and the United States have all signaled that they will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2 emissions. The new framework will be negotiated at the December 2015 meeting of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in Paris, France.
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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.[8] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections, meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century.
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projected increased in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C.
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First commitment period: 2008–12
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Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.[22] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}), methane (CH
4), nitrous oxide (N
2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF
6), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). -
These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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18 Nov 14
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16 February 2005.
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'a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system'
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principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
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37 industrialized countries, mostly Member States of the European Economic Area (EU + EFTA)
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average five per cent emissions reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008 to 2012.
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first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
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proposed in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment
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second commitment period
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commit only Europe to further CO2 reductions until 2020 but has yet to be ratified.
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China, India, and the United States
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not ratify any treaty
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legally
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The new framework will be negotiated at the December 2015 meeting of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in Paris, France.
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29 Oct 14
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extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
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The Kyoto Protocol
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emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries, mostly Member States of the European Economic Area (EU + EFTA) in its first commitment period.
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The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
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A second commitment period was proposed in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment, which would commit only Europe to further CO2 reductions until 2020 but has yet to be ratified
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post-Kyoto legal framework
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China, India, and the United States have all signaled that they will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2 emissions.
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The new framework will be negotiated at the December 2015 meeting of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in Paris, France.
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UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro.
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1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
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Berlin
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the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
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2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
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2011 Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.[11]
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2012 On 31 December 2012, the Protocol expired.
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First commitment period: 2008–12
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Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.
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The six GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions.[
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The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[41] Carbon Trust (2009, pp. 24–25) found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place.[
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28 Sep 14
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16 Sep 14
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The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC is an environmental treaty with the goal of preventing dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference of the climate system
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] There are 192 parties to the convention:
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imitations/reductions in their emissions of greenhouse gases in two commitments periods. The first commitment period applies to emissions between 2008-2012, and the second commitment period applies to emissions between 2013-2020. The protocol was amended in 2012 to accommodate the second commitment period,[13][14][15] but this amendment has (as of January 2013) not entered into legal force.[7]
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Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol).
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International emissions trading allows developed countries to trade their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.[17] They can trade emissions quotas among themselves, and can also receive credit for financing emissions reductions in developing countries.[17] Developed countries may use emissions trading until late 2014 or 2015 to meet their first-round targets.[18]
Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treaty to reduce their emissions.[19] Actions taken by developed and developing countries to reduce emissions include support for renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.[20] Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their development needs.[21]
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The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of emissions between 1750 and 2004),[22] and that carbon dioxide emissions per person in developing countries (2.9 tonnes in 2010)[23] are, on average, lower than emissions per person in developed countries (10.4 tonnes in 2010).[23]
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Background
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Objectives
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Kyoto Protocol
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Carbon dioxide (CO
2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG -
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol[47] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
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- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
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First commitment period: 2008–12
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13 Aug 14
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UNFCCC
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binding obligations
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GHG emissions
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150 years of industrial activity
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common but differentiated responsibilities'
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entered into force in 2005
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trade their commitments
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emissions quotas
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receive credit
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financing emissions reductions
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developing countries
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renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.
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07 Jun 14
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The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
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27 May 14
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Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
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the Protocol "recognises that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere
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and places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities'.
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United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011
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many developed countries have agreed to legally binding limitations/reductions in their emissions of greenhouse gases
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The first commitment period applies to emissions between 2008-2012, and the second commitment period applies to emissions between 2013-202
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Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol).
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Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treaty to reduce their emissions
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The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs)
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According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012)
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Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
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Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties.
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, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at hom
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Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
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Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
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Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.
-
-
nitrous oxide (N
2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF
6), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) -
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties
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Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (i.e., no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping
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For most Parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory
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The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI).
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The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments
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he CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects.
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The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
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India
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29 Apr 14
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27 Apr 14
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he United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011
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Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol).
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Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treaty to reduce their emissions.[19] Actions taken by developed and developing countries to reduce emissions include support for renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.
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Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their development need
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The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH
4), nitrous oxide (N
2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF
6), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) -
These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
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expressing disapproval of any international agreement that 1) did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and 2) "would seriously harm the economy of the United States"
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Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty,[114] it was never submitted the treaty to the Senate for ratification.
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In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion
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criticism
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balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.
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based on the idea of climate justice (
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The United States
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did not ratify
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The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments
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Criticisms
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adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries
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ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources
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01 Jan 14
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anthropogenic
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common but differentiated responsibilities'
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Belarus
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Liechtenstein
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Kazakhstan
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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007)
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hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
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perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
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Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
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Joint Implementation (JI)
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the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
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International Emissions Trading (IET)
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Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short
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Emission Reduction Units (ERUs)
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credits
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greenhouse gas inventory
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the CDM Executive Board
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Tokyo Metropolitan Government
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European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
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a surplus of allowances
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fuel switching
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450 parts per million (ppm) CO
2- eq -
"business-as-usual"
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Berlin mandate
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the first Kyoto commitment period
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the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)
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The Adaptation Fund
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Hague
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carbon dioxide sinks
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Executive branch
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Byrd-Hagel Resolution
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Durban agreement
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the Holy See
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teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 109 kg)
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aggregate emissions
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Washington Declaration
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2010 Cancún agreements
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ahead of the curve
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World Wildlife Fund
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the Doha talks
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29 Nov 13
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07 Nov 13
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The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period.[90] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense.[94] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions.[94] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments.[94]
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. Before the Protocol was agreed on, the U.S. Senate passed the Byrd-Hagel Resolution unanimously disapproving of any international agreement that 1) did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and 2) "would seriously harm the economy of the United States"
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When George W. Bush was elected U.S. president in 2000, he was asked by U.S. Senator Hagel what his administration's position was on climate change. Bush replied that he took climate change "very seriously,"[113] but that he opposed the Kyoto treaty, because "it exempts 80% of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US economy".[27] Almost all world leaders (e.g., China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific islands) expressed their disappointment over President Bush's decision not to support the treaty.[114]
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12 Apr 13
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The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
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The United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011
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The 37 countries with binding targets in the second commitment period are Australia, all members of the European Union, Belarus, Croatia, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.[15] Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol).
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17 Mar 13
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The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
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190 countries
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except Afghanistan, Andorra, Canada, South Sudan and the United States
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Canada withdrew from it in 2011.
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adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997, and entered into force in 2005
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first commitment period
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2008-2012
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second commitment perio
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2013-2020
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t taken on new targets in the s
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13 Feb 13
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One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available.
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sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
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The Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005
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The United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011.
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gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012, relative to their annual emissions in a base year,
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usually 1990.
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.[1
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The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms",
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Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
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Parties to the Kyoto Protocol[19] agreed to a second commitment period of emissions reductions from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020,
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The 37 countries with binding targets in the second commitment period
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and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below).
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"hot air,
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28 Nov 12
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By May 2012, the USA, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period.[141] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not
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14 Oct 12
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adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
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agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012.
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rading surplus allowances
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Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012
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Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions.[
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Party Target level and date
(reductions from 1990)Gas(es)
coveredDate proposed AOSIS[70] 20% by 2005 CO2 20 Sept 1994 Brazil 30% by 2020
(differentiated)CO2, CH4, N2O 28 May 1997 Canada 3% by 2010,
additional 5% by 2015All GHGs 2 Dec 1997 Czech Republic 5% by 2005,
15% by 2010CO2, CH4, N2O 27 Mar 1997 Democratic
Republic of the Congo
(Zaire)10% by 2005,
15% by 2010,
20% by 2020All GHGs 23 Oct 1996 EU at least 7.5% by 2005,
15% by 2010CO2, CH4, N2O 19 June 1997,[71]
4 Mar 1997[72]France 7-10% in
average per capita
emissions by 2010
(differentiated)All GHGs 6 Dec 1996[73] Germany 10% by 2005,
15-20% by 2010CO2 26 Mar 1996[73] G-77 and China at least 7.5% by 2005,
15% by 2010,
an additional 20% by 2020CO2, CH4, N2O
(gas-by-gas)22 Oct 1997 Hungary et al. Stabilization by 2005
plus pledging of
differentiated targetsCO2, CH4, N2O 27 Mar 1997 Japan 5% by 2008-2012
(differentiated)CO2, CH4, N2O 6 Oct 1997 New Zealand 5% in a 5 year period,
starting no earlier
than 2005CO2, CH4, N2O 2 Dec 1997 Peru 15% (CO2) by 2005,
15-20% (all GHGs)
by 2010see previous
column7 Mar 1997 Philippines 20% by 2005,
20% by 2010All GHGs 25 Mar 1997 Russian Federation Stabilization by 2010
plus additional
differentiated targets
for "Annex B" PartiesAll GHGs 26 Feb 1997 Switzerland 10% by 2010
(differentiated)All GHGs 29 Nov 1996 UK 5-10% by 2010 All GHGs 16 April 1996[73] USA Return to 1990
by 2008-2012All GHGs 23 Oct 19 -
"it exempts 80% of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US economy"
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The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature by parties to UNFCCC.
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y/region Kyoto
target
GHG
emissions
1990-2008
including
LULUCF[100][101]GHG
emissions
1990-2008
excluding
LULUCF[100][102]CO2
emissions
from fuel
combustion
only
1990-2009
[103][104]North America - - - +20.4 Canada[2][105] -6 +33.6 +24.1 +20.4 Europe - - - -4.9 Austria -13 +6.6 +10.8 +12.2 Belgium -7.5 -6.2 -7.1 -6.7 Denmark -21 -6.8 -6.8 -7.2 Finland 0 -35.9 -0.2 +1.1 France 0 -12.7 -5.9 +0.6[106] Germany -21 -17.6 -21.4 -21.1 Greece +25 +22.9 +23.1 +28.6 Iceland +10 +19.2 +42.9 +6.2 Ireland +13 +19.9 +23.2 +32.4 Italy -6.5 +0.4 +4.7 -2.0 Luxembourg -28 -9.2 -4.8 -4.4 Netherlands -6 -2.4 -2.4 +13.0 Norway +1 -32.8 +9.4 +31.9 Portugal +27 +18.3 +32.2 +35.3 Spain +15 +44.0 +42.5 +37.7 Sweden +4 +19.8 -11.3 -20.9 Switzerland -8 +6.8 +0.4 +2.5 United Kingdom -12.5 -19.0 -18.5 -15.2 Asia Oceania - - - +12.7 Australia +8 +33.1 +31.4 +51.8 Japan -6 -0.2 +1.0 +2.7 New Zealand 0 +62.4 +22.7 +34.3 Economies in
Transition- - - -36.2 Bulgaria -8 -45.5 -42.8 -43.7 Croatia -5 -13.7 -0.9 -8.4 Czech Republic -8 -28.7 -27.5 -29.2 Estonia -8 -69.9 -50.9 -59.4 Hungary -8 -38.1 -36.2 -27.8 Latvia -8 -307.9 -55.6 -63.8 Lithuania -8 -69.1 -51.8 -62.6 Poland -6 -34.4 -29.6 -16.2 Romania -8 -53.5 -45.9 -53.1 Russian
Federation0 -52.8 -32.8 -29.7 Slovak
Republic-8 -34.4 -33.7 -41.5 Slovenia -8 +5.2 +5.2 +21.2 Ukraine 0 -52.2 -53.9 -62.7 -
Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest," stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness.
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11 Aug 12
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only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets
-
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emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties.[28] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level
-
others have limitations above the base year level.
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.
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Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms
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allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC
-
marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries
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"project-based mechanisms,"
-
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05 Jun 12
-
achieving the "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[5]
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reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride)
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two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them
-
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012.
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US has not ratified
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falls from 5.2% to 4.2% below base year.[7]:26
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23 Apr 12
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The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming
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The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol
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The only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the United States. Other United Nations member states which did not ratify the protocol are Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan. In December 2011, Canada renounced the Protocol
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37 countries ("Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them,
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Annex I countries (including the US) collectively agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012. This reduction is relative to their annual emissions in a base year, usually 1990
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Since the US has not ratified the treaty, the collective emissions reduction of Annex I Kyoto countries falls from 5.2% to 4.2% below base year
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
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"flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere
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Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol
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These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory
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In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets
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Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but do not have Kyoto targets
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17 Apr 12
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due to disputes between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
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187 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement
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The Canadian government invoked Canada's legal right to formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol on December 12, 2011.[66] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990.
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09 Apr 12
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The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[5]
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The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
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only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the United States.
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Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan
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Canada renounced the Protocol.
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Under the Protocol, 37 countries ("Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments.
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At negotiations, Annex I countries (including the US) collectively agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012
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08 Apr 12
Avinash KumarKyoto Protocol
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The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005
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The only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the United States
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Other United Nations member states which did not ratify the protocol are Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan
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In December 2011, Canada renounced the Protocol.[2]
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commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them
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agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012. This reduction is relative to their annual emissions in a base year, usually 1990. Since the US has not ratified the treaty, the collective emissions reduction of Annex I Kyoto countries falls from 5.2% to 4.2% below base year.[7]:26
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping
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The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3) were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report
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These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO2 equivalents
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The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances.
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These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms
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The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation
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IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short).
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The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects
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The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions
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The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
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The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.
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A Green Investment Scheme (GIS) refers to a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol
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The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET
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However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term.[43]
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Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another Party
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The desire to move to historical emissions was rejected on the basis that good data was not available prior to 1990. The 1990 base year also favoured several powerful interests including the UK, Germany and Russia (Liverman, 2008, p. 12).[25] This is because the UK and Germany had high CO2 emissions in 1990.
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In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets.
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Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew.[65][67
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14 Dec 11
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Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states
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ave a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24). Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus.
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29 Nov 11
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The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
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The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011,
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191 states have signed and ratified the protocol.
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Under the Protocol, 37 countries ("Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments
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educe their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level. Emission limits do not
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include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs
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20 Nov 11
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The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
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5.2% from the 1990 level
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping,
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06 Nov 11
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12 Jul 11
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- the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed countries;
- per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;
- the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development needs.
Common but differentiated responsibility
UNFCCC adopts a principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed that:
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common but differentiated responsibilities
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10 Jun 11
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02 May 11
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The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[1]
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Under the Protocol, 37 countries ("Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments
-
Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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17 Apr 11
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Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol (Dessai, 2001, p. 9). Annex I Parties use of forestry management in meeting their targets is capped.
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- China1 – 17%, 5.8
- United States3
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The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
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In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get Japan and Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
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The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference.
The 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.
Of the signatories, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union)agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations,[25] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990).[26] Reduction limitations expire in 2013.
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If the enforcement branch determines that an annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program
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- For the Annex I non-Economies-in-Transition (non-EIT) Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, emissions in 2005 were 5% higher than 1990 levels (World Bank, 2008, p. 59). Their Kyoto target for 2008-2012 is for a 6% reduction in emissions. The Annex I non-EITs KP Parties are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
- The Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) KP Parties emissions in 2005 were 35% below 1990 levels. Their Kyoto target is for a 2% reduction. The Annex I EIT KP Parties are Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine.
- In 2005, the Annex I non-KP Parties emissions were 18% above their 1990 levels. The Annex I non-KP Parties are Turkey and the United States (since this assessment was produced, Turkey has ratified the Kyoto Protocol).[33]
- In total, the Annex I KP Parties emissions for 2005 were 14% below their 1990 levels. Their Kyoto target is for a 4% reduction.
Progress toward the emission reduction commitments set in the Kyoto Protocol has been mixed. World Bank (2008, p. 6) reported that there were significant differences in performance across individual countries:[32]
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According to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, 2009;[34] n.d.),[35] the industrialized countries with a Kyoto target will, as a group, probably meet their emission limitation requirements. Collectively, this was for a 4% reduction relative to 1990 levels.
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The expected reduction of 11% was attributed to the limited increase in emissions in OECD countries, but was particularly due to the large reduction of about 40% until 1999 in the EITs.
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In Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Switzerland, emissions have increased by 25% compared to the base year, while in Norway, the increase was 9%. In the view of PBL (2009), these countries will only be able to meet their targets by purchasing sufficient CDM credits or by buying emissions ("hot air") from EIT countries.
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Emissions in the US have increased 16% since 1990. According to PBL (2009), the US will not meet its original Kyoto target of a 6% reduction in emissions
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UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[36] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income.
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Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care (UNFCCC, 2005, p. 6). Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change (UNFCCC, 2005, p. 7).
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions could affect their economies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels.
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In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).[34] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990-2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
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Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.[38] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
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World Bank (2010, p. 233) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth.[14] The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but by 2005, energy-related emissions had grown 24%. World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[28] This has particularly centred on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.
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In May 2010 the Hartwell Paper was published by the London School of Economics with funding from the Japan Iron and Steel Federation, Tokyo, Japan and Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc., Tokyo, Japan .[46] The authors argued that after what they regard as the failure of the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Summit, the Kyoto Protocol crashed and they claimed that it "has failed to produce any discernable real world reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases in fifteen years."[46][47] They argued that this failure opened an opportunity to set climate policy free from Kyoto and the paper advocates a controversial and piecemeal approach to decarbonization of the global economy
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greed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisage a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and hoped that this would be in place by 2009.
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On 7 June 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8 summit agreed that the G8 nations would "aim to at least halve global CO2 emissions by 2050". The details enabling this to be achieved would be negotiated by environment ministers within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in a process that would also include the major emerging economies
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After the lack of progress leading to a binding commitment or an extension of the Kyoto commitment period in climate talks at COP 15 in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009, there are several further rounds of negotiation COP 16 in Cancun, Mexico in 2010, South Africa in 2011 (COP 17), and in either Qatar or South Korea in 2012 (COP 18). Because any treaty change will require the ratification of the text by various countries' legislatures before the end of the commitment period Dec 31, 2012, it is likely that agreements in South Africa or South Korea/Qatar will be too late to prevent a gap between the commitment periods.[
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20 Mar 11
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The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming.
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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation
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17 Mar 11
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20 Feb 10
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07 Feb 10
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- commitments to reduce greenhouse gases that are legally binding for annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries;
- implementation to meet the Protocol objectives, to prepare policies and measures which reduce greenhouse gases; increasing absorption of these gases (for example through geosequestration and biosequestration) and use all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, clean development mechanism and emissions trading; being rewarded with credits which allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home;
- minimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change;
- accounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Protocol;
- compliance by establishing a compliance committee to enforce commitment to the Protocol.
The objective is the "stabilization and reconstruction of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[1]
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference was to establish a legally binding international agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from 1990 levels by the year 2012. Contrary to popular belief, the Protocol will NOT expire in 2012. In 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled their obligations of reduction of greenhouse gases emissions established for the first commitment period (2008–2012) (see Annex B of the Protocol).
Proponents also note that Kyoto is a first step[6][7] as requirements to meet the UNFCCC will be modified until the objective is met, as required by UNFCCC Article 4.2(d).[8]
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:[citation needed]
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According to a press release from the United Nations Environment Programme:
"After 10 days of tough negotiations, ministers and other high-level officials from 160 countries reached agreement this morning on a legally binding Protocol under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%. The agreement aims to lower overall emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by 2008–12, calculated as an average over these five years. Cuts in the three most important gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) – will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived industrial gases – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – can be measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline."
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On 31 May 2002, all fifteen then-members of the European Union deposited the relevant ratification paperwork at the UN. The EU produces around 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions, and has agreed to a cut, on average, by 8% from 1990 emission levels. Denmark has committed itself to reducing its emissions by 21%. On 10 January 2007, the European Commission announced plans for a European Union energy policy that included a unilateral 20% reduction in GHG emissions by 2020.
The EU has consistently been one of the major nominal supporters of the Kyoto Protocol, negotiating hard to get wavering countries on board.
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United Kingdom
The energy policy of the United Kingdom fully endorses goals for carbon dioxide emissions reduction and has committed to proportionate reduction in national emissions on a phased basis. The U.K. is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.
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France
In 2004, France shut down its last coal mine, and now gets 80% of its electricity from nuclear power[59] and therefore has relatively low CO2 emissions.[60]
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29 Dec 09
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01 Dec 09
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The most notable non-member of the Protocol is the United States, which is a signatory of UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission levels.
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Under the Protocol, 37 industrialized countries (called "Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments. Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Countries including Japan, Canada, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Spain and others are actively promoting government carbon funds, supporting multilateral carbon funds intent on purchasing carbon credits from non-Annex I countries,[3] and are working closely with their major utility, energy, oil and gas and chemicals conglomerates to acquire greenhouse gas certificates as cheaply as possible.[citation needed] Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process" that determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
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The most notable non-party to the Protocol is the United States, which is a party to UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission levels of Annex I countries.
The Protocol can be signed and ratified only by parties to UNFCCC, (Article 24) and a country can withdraw by giving 12 months notice. (Article 27)
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whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from 1990 levels by the year 2012.
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- commitments to reduce greenhouse gases that are legally binding for annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries;
- implementation to meet the Protocol objectives, to prepare policies and measures which reduce greenhouse gases; increasing absorption of these gases (for example through geosequestration and biosequestration) and use all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, clean development mechanism and emissions trading; being rewarded with credits which allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home;
- minimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change;
- accounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Protocol;
- compliance by establishing a compliance committee to enforce commitment to the Protocol.
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:[citation needed]
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Under the Protocol, Annex I countries have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets, (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives"- Article 4.1) that range from a joint reduction of 8% for the European Union and others, to 7% for the United States (non-binding as the US is not a signatory), 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia. The treaty permits emission increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.[9] Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.
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The Protocol provides for several "flexible mechanisms" which enable Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission targets by acquiring GHG emission reductions credits. The credits are acquired by an Annex I country financing projects that reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries or other Annex I countries, or by purchasing credits from Annex I countries with excess credits. The flexible mechanisms are emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation.
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- the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed countries;
- per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;
- the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development needs.[11]
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The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC.
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04 May 09
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20 Feb 09
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(carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride), and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons)
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"Annex I" (industrialized) nations,
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As of 2008[update], 183 parties have ratified the protocol
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Under Kyoto, industrialized countries agreed to reduce their collective GHG emissions by 5.2% compared to the year 1990
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The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
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Emission figures exclude international aviation and shipping.
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China, India, and other developing countries were not included in any numerical limitation of the Kyoto Protocol because they were not the main contributors to the greenhouse gas emissions during the pre-treaty industrialization period. However, even without the commitment to reduce according to the Kyoto target, developing countries do share the common responsibility that all countries have in reducing emissions.
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"monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non compliance."
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One example of a 'cap and trade' system is the 'EU ETS'.
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National governments, some of whom may not have devolved responsibility for meeting Kyoto obligations to industry, and that have a net deficit of allowances, will buy credits for their own account, mainly from JI/CDM developers. These deals are occasionally done directly through a national fund or agency, as in the case of the Dutch government's ERUPT programme, or via collective funds such as the World Bank’s Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF). The PCF, for example, represents a consortium of six governments and 17 major utility and energy companies on whose behalf it purchases credits.
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Kyoto enables a group of several Annex I countries to join together to create a market-within-a-market. The EU elected to be treated as such a group, and created the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
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The sources of Kyoto credits are the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) projects.
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The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
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If the Enforcement Branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%.
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In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program
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21 Jan 09
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24 Aug 08
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Kyoto Protocol
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objective of reducing greenhouse gases in an effort to prevent anthropogenic climate change
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16 May 08
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12 Feb 08
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05 Oct 07
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tabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[1]
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The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an amendment to the international treaty on climate change, assigning mandatory emission limitations for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the signatory nations.
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The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.
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The Kyoto Protocol now covers more than 160 countries globally and more than 60% of countries in terms of global greenhouse gas emissions. This treaty expires in 2012, and international talks began in May 2007 on a future treaty to succeed the current one.[4]
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21 Apr 07
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15 Mar 07
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